Search

How long does immunity last after a COVID infection?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/lara-herrero-1166059">Lara Herrero</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/griffith-university-828">Griffith University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/dr-wesley-freppel-1408971">Dr Wesley Freppel</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/griffith-university-828">Griffith University</a> Nearly four years into the pandemic, Australia, like many other countries, is still seeing large numbers of <a href="https://nindss.health.gov.au/pbi-dashboard/">COVID cases</a>. Some 860,221 infections were recorded around the country in 2023, while 30,283 cases have already been reported in 2024. This is likely to be a significant underestimate, with fewer people testing and reporting than earlier in the pandemic. But the signs suggest parts of Australia are experiencing yet <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-01-23/covid-19-case-numbers-from-australia-states-and-territories/103374656">another COVID surge</a>. While some lucky people claim to have never had COVID, many are facing our second, third or even fourth infection, often despite having been vaccinated. You might be wondering, how long does immunity last after a previous infection or vaccination? Let’s take a look at what the evidence shows. <h2>B cells and T cells</h2> To answer this question, we need to understand a bit about how <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-happens-in-our-body-when-we-encounter-and-fight-off-a-virus-like-the-flu-sars-cov-2-or-rsv-207023">immunity</a> to SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID) works. After being infected or vaccinated, the immune system develops specific antibodies that can neutralise SARS-CoV-2. B cells remember the virus for a period of time. In addition, the immune system produces memory T cells that can kill the virus, and remain in the blood for some months after the clearance of the infection or a vaccination. A <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.abf4063?rfr_dat=cr_pub++0pubmed&url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org">2021 study</a> found 98% of people had antibodies against SARS-CoV-2’s spike protein (a protein on the surface of the virus that allows it to attach to our cells) one month after symptom onset. Six to eight months afterwards, 90% of participants still had these neutralising antibodies in their blood. This means the immune system should have recognised and neutralised the same SARS-CoV-2 variant if challenged within six to eight months (if an infection occurred, it should have resulted in mild to no symptoms). <h2>But what about when the virus mutates?</h2> As we know, SARS-CoV-2 has mutated over time, leading to the emergence of new variants such as alpha, beta, delta and omicron. Each of these variants carries mutations that are new to the immune system, even if the person has been previously infected with an earlier variant. A new variant likely won’t be <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adj0070">perfectly recognised</a> – or even <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/pdf/S0092-8674(21)01578-6.pdf">recognised at all</a> – by the already activated memory T or B cells from a previous SARS-CoV-2 infection. This could explain why people can be so readily reinfected with COVID. A recent <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/article/S0140-6736(22)02465-5/fulltext#seccestitle10">review of studies</a> published up to the end of September 2022 looked at the protection conferred by previous SARS-CoV-2 infections. The authors found a previous infection provided protective immunity against reinfection with the ancestral, alpha, beta and delta variants of 85.2% at four weeks. Protection against reinfection with these variants remained high (78.6%) at 40 weeks, or just over nine months, after the previous infection. This protection decreased to 55.5% at 80 weeks (18 months), but the authors noted there was a lack of data at this time point. Notably, an earlier infection provided only 36.1% protection against a reinfection with omicron BA.1 at 40 weeks. Omicron has been described as an <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-022-01143-7">immune escape variant</a>. A prior infection showed a high level of protection against severe disease (above 88%) up to 40 weeks regardless of the variant a person was reinfected with. <h2>What about immunity after vaccination?</h2> So far almost 70 million COVID vaccines <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/topics/covid-19/reporting">have been administered</a> to more than <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/covid-19-vaccine-rollout-update-12-january-2023?language=en">22 million people</a> in Australia. Scientists estimated COVID vaccines prevented around <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(22)00320-6/fulltext">14.4 million deaths</a> in 185 countries in the first year after they became available. But we know COVID vaccine effectiveness wanes over time. A <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2804451?utm_source=For_The_Media&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=ftm_links&utm_term=050323">2023 review</a> found the original vaccines were 79.6% and 49.7% effective at protecting against symptomatic delta infection at one and nine months after vaccination respectively. They were 60.4% and 13.3% effective against symptomatic omicron at the same time points. This is where booster doses come into the picture. They’re important to keep the immune system ready to fight off the virus, particularly for those who are more vulnerable to the effects of a COVID infection. Plus, regular booster doses can provide immunity against different variants. COVID vaccines are constantly being <a href="https://mvec.mcri.edu.au/references/covid-19/">reviewed and updated</a> to ensure optimal protection against <a href="https://www.who.int/activities/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants">current circulating strains</a>, with the latest shot available designed to target <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/ministers/the-hon-mark-butler-mp/media/new-covid-19-vaccines-available-to-target-current-variants">the omicron variant XBB 1.5</a>. This is similar to how we approach seasonal flu vaccines. A <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-50335-6">recent study</a> showed a COVID vaccination provides longer protection against reinfection than natural protection alone. The median time from infection to reinfection in non-vaccinated people was only six months, compared with 14 months in people who had received one, two or three doses of vaccine after their first infection. This is called <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abj2258">hybrid immunity</a>, and other research has similarly found it provides better protection than natural infection alone. It also seems timing is important, as receiving a vaccine too soon after an infection (less than six months) appears to be <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-50335-6">less effective</a> than getting vaccinated later. <h2>What now?</h2> Everyone’s immune system is slightly unique, and SARS-CoV-2 continues to mutate, so knowing exactly how long COVID immunity lasts is complicated. Evidence suggests immunity following infection should generally last six months in healthy adults, and can be prolonged with vaccination. But there are exceptions, and all of this assumes the virus has not mutated so much that it “escapes” our immune response. While many people feel the COVID pandemic is over, it’s important we don’t forget the lessons we have learned. Practices such as wearing a mask and staying home when unwell can reduce the spread of many viruses, not only <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/375/bmj-2021-068302">COVID</a>. Vaccination is not mandatory, but for older adults eligible for a booster under the <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/news/atagi-update-on-the-covid-19-vaccination-program">current guidelines</a>, it’s a very good idea.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221398/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/lara-herrero-1166059">Lara Herrero</a>, Research Leader in Virology and Infectious Disease, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/griffith-university-828">Griffith University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/dr-wesley-freppel-1408971">Dr Wesley Freppel</a>, Research Fellow, Institute for Glycomics, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/griffith-university-828">Griffith University</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-long-does-immunity-last-after-a-covid-infection-221398">original article</a>.

Body

How biological differences between men and women alter immune responses – and affect women’s health

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/helen-mcgettrick-1451122">Helen McGettrick</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-birmingham-1138">University of Birmingham</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/asif-iqbal-1451123">Asif Iqbal</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-birmingham-1138">University of Birmingham</a> Most people will have heard the term “man flu”, which refers to men’s perceived tendency to exaggerate the severity of a cold or a similar minor ailment. What most people may not know is that, generally speaking, women mount stronger <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36121220/">immune responses</a> to infections than men. Men are <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1005374">more susceptible</a> to infections from, for example, HIV, hepatitis B, and Plasmodium falciparum (the parasite responsible for malaria). They can also have more severe symptoms, with evidence showing they’re more likely to be <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1005374">admitted to hospital</a> when infected with hepatitis B, tuberculosis, and Campylobacter jejuni (a bacteria that causes gastroenteritis), among others. While this may be positive for women in some respects, it also means women are at <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri2815">greater risk</a> of developing chronic diseases driven by the immune system, known as immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Here we will explore how biological factors influence immune differences between the sexes and how this affects women’s health. While we acknowledge that both sex and gender may affect immune responses, this article will focus on biological sex rather than gender. <h2>Battle of the sexes</h2> There are differences <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri.2016.90">between the sexes</a> at every stage of the immune response, from the number of immune cells, to their degree of activation (how ready they are to respond to a challenge), and beyond. However, the story is more complicated than that. Our immune system evolves throughout our lives, learning from past experiences, but also responding to the physiological challenges of getting older. As a result, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri.2016.90">sex differences</a> in the immune system can be seen from birth through puberty into adulthood and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jleuko/qiad053/7190870">old age</a>. Why do these differences occur? The first part of answering this question involves the X chromosome. Females have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome. The <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20651746/">X chromosome</a> contains the largest number of immune-related genes. The X chromosome also has <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00018-020-03526-7">around 118 genes</a> from a gene family that are able to stop the expression of other genes, or change how proteins are made, including those required for immunity. These gene-protein regulators are known as microRNA, and there are only <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24808907/">two microRNA genes</a> on the Y chromosome. The X chromosome has <a href="https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/fact-sheets/X-Chromosome-facts">more genes overall</a> (around 900) than the Y chromosome (around 55), so female cells have evolved to switch off one of their X chromosomes. This is not like turning off a light switch, but more like using a dimmer. Around <a href="https://bmcgenomics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12864-019-5507-6">15-25% of genes</a> on the silenced X chromosome are expressed at any given moment in any given cell. This means female cells can often express more immune-related genes and gene-protein regulators than males. This generally means a faster clearance of pathogens in females than males. Second, men and women have <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2020.604000/full">varying levels</a> of different sex hormones. Progesterone and testosterone are broadly considered to limit immune responses. While both hormones are produced by males and females, progesterone is found at higher concentrations in non-menopausal women than men, and testosterone is much higher in men than women. The role of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6533072/">oestrogen</a>, one of the main female sex hormones, is more complicated. Although generally oestrogen <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S000887491500026X?via%3Dihub">enhances immune responses</a>, its levels vary during the menstrual cycle, are high in pregnancy and low after menopause. Due in part to these genetic and hormonal factors, pregnancy and the years following are associated with heightened immune responses to external challenges such as infection. This has been regarded as an <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri.2016.90">evolutionary feature</a>, protecting women and their unborn children during pregnancy and enhancing the mother’s survival throughout the child-rearing years, ultimately ensuring the survival of the population. We also see this pattern in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2628977/">other species</a> including insects, lizards, birds and mammals. <h2>What does this all mean?</h2> With women’s heightened immune responses to infections comes an increased risk of certain diseases and prolonged immune responses after infections. An <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3328995/">estimated 75-80%</a> of all immune-mediated inflammatory diseases <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32542149/">occur in females</a>. Diseases more common in women include multiple sclerosis, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri2815">rheumatoid arthritis</a>, lupus, Sjogren’s syndrome, and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri.2016.90">thyroid disorders</a> such as Graves disease. In these diseases, the immune system is continuously fighting against what it sees as a foreign agent. However, often this perceived threat is not a foreign agent, but cells or tissues from the host. This leads to tissue damage, pain and immobility. Women are also prone to chronic inflammation following infection. For example, after infections with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5818468/">Epstein Barr virus</a> or <a href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/jwh.2008.1193">Lyme disease</a>, they may go on to develop <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/chronic-fatigue-syndrome-cfs/">chronic fatigue syndrome</a>, another condition that affects more women than men. This is one possible explanation for the heightened risk among <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fresc.2023.1122673/full">pre-menopausal women</a> of developing long COVID following infection with SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID. Research has also revealed the presence of auto-antibodies (antibodies that attack the host) in patients with long COVID, suggesting it might be an <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1568997221000550">autoimmune disease</a>. As women are more susceptible to autoimmune conditions, this could potentially explain the sex bias seen. However, the exact causes of long COVID, and the reason women may be at greater risk, are yet to be defined. This paints a bleak picture, but it’s not all bad news. Women typically mount <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24966191/">better vaccine responses</a> to several common infections (for example, influenza, measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis A and B), producing higher antibody levels than men. One study showed that women vaccinated with half a dose of flu vaccine produced the same amount of antibodies compared to men vaccinated with <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/773453">a full dose</a>. However, these responses <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri.2016.90">decline as women age</a>, and particularly <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3954964/">after menopause</a>. All of this shows it’s vital to consider sex when designing studies examining the immune system and treating patients with immune-related diseases.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208802/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/helen-mcgettrick-1451122">Helen McGettrick</a>, Reader in Inflammation and Vascular Biology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-birmingham-1138">University of Birmingham</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/asif-iqbal-1451123">Asif Iqbal</a>, Associate Professor in Inflammation Biology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-birmingham-1138">University of Birmingham</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-biological-differences-between-men-and-women-alter-immune-responses-and-affect-womens-health-208802">original article</a>.

Body

Why does my back get so sore when I’m sick? The connection between immunity and pain

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/joshua-pate-1399299">Joshua Pate</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-technology-sydney-936">University of Technology Sydney</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/mark-hutchinson-105409">Mark Hutchinson</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-adelaide-1119">University of Adelaide</a> Have you ever wondered why your back aches when you’re down with the flu or a cold? Or COVID? This discomfort, common during many illnesses, is not just a random symptom. It’s a result of complex interactions between your immune system and your brain called the “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3314453/">neuroimmune synapse</a>”. A fascinating and yet-to-be-understood consequence of this conversation between the immune and brain systems during sickness is that it is particularly noticeable in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/brain/article/145/3/1098/6370954">lower back</a>. This is thought to be one of the body’s most sensitive regions to neuroimmune threats. <h2>Immunology basics</h2> Our immune system is a double-edged sword. Yes, it fights off infections for us – but it also makes us acutely aware of the job it is doing. When our body detects an infection, our immune system releases molecules including signalling proteins called <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227831648_The_functions_of_cytokines_and_their_uses_in_toxicology">cytokines</a>. These proteins coordinate our immune system to fight off the infection and talk to our brain and spinal cord to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2740752/#:%7E:text=Production%20of%20proinflammatory%20cytokines%20induces,to%20depression%20in%20vulnerable%20individuals.">change our behaviour</a> and physiology. This can result in symptoms like fatigue, loss of appetite, fever and increased sensitivity to pain. Classically, we think of this as a beneficial behavioural change to help us conserve energy to fight off the infection. It’s why we often feel the need to rest and withdraw from our usual activities when we’re sick – and also why we are grumpier than usual. <h2>Invisibly small changes</h2> Part of this self-protective response is a change in how we perceive threats, including sensory stimuli. When we are sick, touch can become painful and muscles can ache. Many changes in behaviour and sensory systems are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000521476">believed</a> to have origins at the nanoscale. When molecular changes occur in part of the brain linked to cognition or mood, we think and feel differently. If these neuroimmune synapse changes happen in the sensory processing regions of the brain and spinal cord, we feel more pain. Such sensory changes, known as <a href="https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/fact-sheets/allodynia-and-hyperalgesia-in-neuropathic-pain/#:%7E:text=Allodynia%20is%20pain%20due%20to,stimulus%20that%20normally%20provokes%20pain.">allodynia and hyperalgesia</a>, can lead to heightened pain sensitivity, even in areas not directly affected by the infection – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0889159114001731?via%3Dihub">such as the lower back</a>. <h2>Immune memories</h2> This immune response happens with a range of bacterial infections and viruses like COVID or the flu. In fact, the sick feeling we sometimes get after a vaccination is the good work our immune system is doing to contribute to <a href="https://theconversation.com/you-cant-get-influenza-from-a-flu-shot-heres-how-it-works-118916">a protective immune memory</a>. Some of that immune-cellular conversation also alerts our brains that we are sick, or makes us think we are. After some viral infections, the sick feeling persists longer than the virus. We are seeing a long-term response to COVID in some people, termed <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-does-covid-become-long-covid-and-whats-happening-in-the-body-when-symptoms-persist-heres-what-weve-learnt-so-far-188976">long COVID</a>. Women, who generally have a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri.2016.90">stronger immune response</a> than men, may be more likely to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7937378/">experience pain symptoms</a>. Their heightened immune response (while beneficial in resisting infections) also predisposes women to a higher risk of inflammatory conditions like <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7980266/">autoimmune diseases</a>. <h2>When to worry and what to do</h2> If the pain is severe, persistent, or accompanied by other concerning symptoms, seek medical attention. Mild to moderate pain is a common symptom during illness and we often notice this in the lower back. The good news is it usually subsides as the infection clears and the sickness resolves. While treating the underlying infection is crucial, there are also ways to dial down sickness-induced neuroimmune pain. Maintaining a diverse microbiome (the collection of microorganisms living in and on your body) by <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31704402/">eating well and getting outside</a> can help. Getting quality sleep, staying hydrated and minimising inflammation <a href="https://karger.com/bbe/article/97/3-4/197/821576/Sickness-and-the-Social-Brain-How-the-Immune">helps too</a>. Amazingly, there is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34404209/">research</a> suggesting your grandmother’s traditional chicken broth recipe decreases the immune signals at the neuroimmune synapse. Scientists are also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24799686/">showing</a> mindfulness meditation, cold water therapy and controlled breathing can drive profound cellular and molecular changes to help activate bodily systems like the autonomic nervous system and alter the immune response. These practices might not only help manage pain but also add an anti-inflammatory component to the immune response, reducing the severity and duration of sickness. Heat treatment (with a pack or hot water bottle) might <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8401625/">provide some relief</a> due to increased circulation. Over-the-counter pain relief maybe also be helpful but seek advice if you are taking other medications. <h2>All in the mind?</h2> Is this all mind over matter? A little of yes and a lot of no. The little of yes comes from <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26194270/">research</a> supporting the idea that if you expect your breathing, meditation and cold bath therapy to work, it may well make a difference at the cellular and molecular level. But by understanding the mechanisms of back pain during illness and by using some simple strategies, there is hope to manage this pain effectively. Always remember to seek medical help if your symptoms are severe or persist longer than expected. Your health and comfort are paramount.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207222/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/joshua-pate-1399299">Joshua Pate</a>, Senior Lecturer in Physiotherapy, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-technology-sydney-936">University of Technology Sydney</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/mark-hutchinson-105409">Mark Hutchinson</a>, Professor, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-adelaide-1119">University of Adelaide</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-my-back-get-so-sore-when-im-sick-the-connection-between-immunity-and-pain-207222">original article</a>.

Caring

Did COVID harm my immune system?

So you’ve had COVID and have now recovered. You don’t have ongoing symptoms and luckily, you don’t seem to have developed <a href="https://theconversation.com/long-covid-how-researchers-are-zeroing-in-on-the-self-targeted-immune-attacks-that-may-lurk-behind-it-169911" target="_blank" rel="noopener">long COVID</a>. But what impacts has COVID had on your overall immune system? It’s early days yet. But growing evidence suggests there are changes to your immune system that may put you at risk of other infectious diseases. Here’s what we know so far. <h2>A round of viral infections</h2> Over this past winter, many of us have had what seemed like a <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-i-and-my-kids-get-so-many-colds-and-with-all-this-covid-around-should-we-be-isolating-too-179302" target="_blank" rel="noopener">continual round</a> of viral illness. This may have included COVID, <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/influenza-seasonal#tab=tab_1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">influenza</a> or infection with <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/respiratory-syncytial-virus/symptoms-causes/syc-20353098" target="_blank" rel="noopener">respiratory syncytial virus</a>. We may have recovered from one infection, only to get another. Then there is the re-emergence of infectious diseases globally such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-to-talk-about-monkeypox-without-shame-and-blame-188295" target="_blank" rel="noopener">monkeypox</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-latest-polio-cases-have-put-the-world-on-alert-heres-what-this-means-for-australia-and-people-travelling-overseas-188989" target="_blank" rel="noopener">polio</a>. Could these all be connected? Does COVID somehow weaken the immune system to make us more prone to other infectious diseases? There are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128009475000168?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noopener">many reasons</a> for infectious diseases to emerge in new locations, after many decades, or in new populations. So we cannot jump to the conclusion COVID infections have given rise to these and other viral infections. But evidence is building of the negative impact of COVID on a healthy individual’s immune system, several weeks after symptoms have subsided. <h2>What happens when you catch a virus?</h2> There are three possible outcomes after a viral infection: 1) your immune system clears the infection and you recover (for instance, with <a href="https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/ear-nose-throat/Pages/Rhinovirus-Infections.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rhinovirus</a> which causes the common cold) 2) your immune system fights the virus into “latency” and you recover with a virus dormant in our bodies (for instance, <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/chickenpox" target="_blank" rel="noopener">varicella zoster virus</a>, which causes chickenpox) 3) your immune system fights, and despite best efforts the virus remains “chronic”, replicating at very low levels (this can occur for <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-c" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hepatitis C virus</a>). Ideally we all want option 1, to clear the virus. In fact, most of us <a href="https://biosignaling.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12964-022-00856-w" target="_blank" rel="noopener">clear SARS-CoV-2</a>, the virus that causes COVID. That’s through a complex process, using many different parts of our immune system. But international evidence suggests changes to our immune cells after SARS-CoV-2 infection may have other impacts. It may affect our ability to fight other viruses, as well as other pathogens, such as bacteria or fungi. <h2>How much do we know?</h2> An <a href="https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-021-02228-6" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Australian study</a> has found SARS-CoV-2 alters the balance of immune cells up to 24 weeks after clearing the infection. There were changes to the relative numbers and types of immune cells between people who had recovered from COVID compared with healthy people who had not been infected. This included changes to cells of the <a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/organ-systems/the-immune-system/a/innate-immunity" target="_blank" rel="noopener">innate immune system</a> (which provides a non-specific immune response) and the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21070/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">adaptive immune system</a> (a specific immune response, targeting a recognised foreign invader). <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1009742" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Another study</a> focused specifically on <a href="https://www.immunology.org/public-information/bitesized-immunology/cells/dendritic-cells" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dendritic cells</a> – the immune cells that are often considered the body’s “first line of defence”. Researchers found fewer of these cells circulating after people recovered from COVID. The ones that remained were less able to activate white blood cells known as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/T-cell" target="_blank" rel="noopener">T-cells</a>, a critical step in activating anti-viral immunity. Other studies have found different impacts on T-cells, and other types of white blood cells known as <a href="https://askabiologist.asu.edu/b-cell" target="_blank" rel="noopener">B-cells</a> (cells involved in producing antibodies). After SARS-CoV-2 infection, one study <a href="https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI140491" target="_blank" rel="noopener">found evidence</a> many of these cells had been activated and “exhausted”. This suggests the cells are dysfunctional, and might not be able to adequately fight a subsequent infection. In other words, sustained activation of these immune cells after a SARS-CoV-2 infection may have an impact on other inflammatory diseases. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-021-00749-3#citeas" target="_blank" rel="noopener">One study</a> found people who had recovered from COVID have changes in different types of B-cells. This included changes in the cells’ metabolism, which may impact how these cells function. Given B-cells are critical for producing antibodies, we’re not quite sure of the precise implications. Could this influence how our bodies produce antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 should we encounter it again? Or could this impact our ability to produce antibodies against pathogens more broadly – against other viruses, bacteria or fungi? The study did not say. <h2>What impact will these changes have?</h2> One of the main concerns is whether such changes may impact how the immune system responds to other infections, or whether these changes might worsen or cause other chronic conditions. So more work needs to be done to understand the long-term impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on a person’s immune system. For instance, we still don’t know how long these changes to the immune system last, and if the immune system recovers. We also don’t know if SARS-CoV-2 triggers other chronic illnesses, such as <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/chronic-fatigue-syndrome-cfs-me" target="_blank" rel="noopener">chronic fatigue syndrome</a> (myalgic encephalomyelitis). Research into this is ongoing. What we do know is that having a healthy immune system and being vaccinated (when a vaccine has been developed) is critically important to have the best chance of fighting any infection. This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/ive-had-covid-and-am-constantly-getting-colds-did-covid-harm-my-immune-system-am-i-now-at-risk-of-other-infectious-diseases-188899" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>. Image: Shutterstock

Body

Basic tips for staying healthier throughout winter

The cooler months are just around the corner and the last thing we want is to not feel our ultimate best. We can all admit that we’d rather be in bed under a warm blanket, watching TV, bingeing on junk food rather than going out to the gym, or making healthy foods because takeout is so much easier. However, it is just as important to stay fit and healthy in winter as it is in summer. Below are the Top Six ways to do just that. <ol> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Eat immune boosting foods </li> </ol> To ensure an ultimate healthy lifestyle, it is recommended to stick to foods from the five food groups. Need a refresher? They include: vegetables and legumes/beans, fruit, lean meat, fish, poultry, grains and cereal, milk, cheese and yoghurt. Stay on top of your Vitamin C which is in most fruits and veggies. Zinc is just as important and could be found in most animal products, nuts and seeds. Iron is also one to stay on top of which can be found in meat, beans, lentils and even spinach. <ol start="2"> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Drink water </li> </ol> Water is just as important in the cooler months as it is in the warmer seasons. Stay hydrated however is not just limited to water, you can drink as much soup, tea as you want and it all helps. <ol start="3"> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Stay active </li> </ol> The weather may not be in your favour but there are many fun indoor activities you can get up to. Indoor rock climbing, obstacle courses, dance class…whatever tickles your fancy. Or just join the gym. <ol start="4"> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Limit the alcohol intake </li> </ol> Alcohol affects our mood, sleep and energy levels which in turn can leave us feeling more stressed and exhausted. It also increases the risk of having a stroke, high blood pressure, heart disease, liver disease and cancers. We’re not saying to give it up completely, but it will help a lot if you reduce how much you drink. <ol start="5"> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Practice good hygiene </li> </ol> After three years of the pandemic this should be second nature. <ol start="6"> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Get some Vitamin D </li> </ol> Take advantage of the good weather whenever it arrives. When you see the sun, pop on some sunscreen, shades and hat and go out for a walk in the park, at the beach or grab a coffee with some friends. Image: Shutterstock

Body

13 foods doctors eat when they have a cold

That age-old advice is dead-on: when you’re sick, your body needs extra fuel in the form of kilojoules to defend against germs and mount an immune response. “What you eat can be one of the best weapons in your arsenal,” says pulmonologist, Dr Gustavo Ferrer. The right nutrients can give your immune system a much-needed boost, help clear up some of those irritating symptoms, and get you back on your feet faster. Doctors shared their favourite home remedies when they feel a cold coming on – and some of their recommendations may surprise you. Chicken soup It’s not just for your soul – chicken soup may actually help fight upper respiratory tract infections, according to an older, but classic study published in the journal Chest that looked at how immune cells responded in the laboratory. “When we get attacked by a virus, our natural defences can cause an inflammatory response,” says Dr Ferrer. Some combination of ingredients in the soup may inhibit the white blood cell activity that can cause inflammation. Strawberries These berries are brimming with antioxidant power – they’re among the top 20 richest fruits when it comes to free radical slaying compounds – particularly vitamin C. And last year, a study in the journal Nutrients found that getting up to eight grams of vitamin C a day can help shorten the length of a cold. Adding a cup of sliced strawberries to your smoothie will net you about 100 milligrams of vitamin C. Garlic This potent bulb contains a compound known as allicin, which has antibacterial and antiviral properties that may help fight off the common cold. Chopping or crushing garlic activates this compound, so for maximum results, prep it and let it sit for several minutes before eating it. In research published in the Cochrane Database of Systemic Reviews, people who took a garlic supplement daily reported fewer colds over a three-month span than those who popped a placebo. Honey Sore throat? The sticky, sweet nectar was found to be superior to many over-the-counter cough suppressants, Dr Ferrer says. For a soothing elixir that’s the bee’s knees, combine honey with lemon juice for a little vitamin C antioxidant action, he adds. Carrots These may be one of the ingredients that give chicken soup its curative properties. Carrots and other orange-hued produce contain beta-carotene. Your body converts this compound to vitamin A, a building block of your immune system, says Dr Eudene Harry. Onions These aromatics contain quercetin, an antioxidant with antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties. “A lot of the symptoms you get when you’re sick is your body hyper-responding to things that are not necessarily a threat,” says Dr Harry. “Antioxidants help quell some of that response so it doesn’t get out of control. They remove waste products and reduce inflammation,” she says. Capsicum Research shows that being cold may suppress your immune system a bit, but vitamin C has natural immune-boosting properties. Loading up on C-rich foods can be a good way to compensate for a suppressed immune function during the chillier months, Dr Harry says. A cup of chopped capsicum has two times as much vitamin C as a medium orange. Green tea Fluids are important when you’re sick because, Dr Harry says, “Everything works better when you’re hydrated.” Green tea is a good choice because it contains the potent antioxidants catechins, along with theanine, an amino acid. Both have been linked to immunity, research shows. Ginger If the dreaded stomach flu is going around, stock up on this relieving root. It’s known for its anti-nausea properties. It also contains compounds known as gingerols that have an anti-inflammatory effect, which makes it an ideal addition to a cup of tea for soothing a sore throat. Dr Harry likes to take hers with ginger, pomegranate and lemon. Mushrooms These fungi are one of the few edible sources of vitamin D, which we normally get from the sun. Shorter daylight hours during the autumn and winter months can mean we’re not getting enough of that nutrient, which can open the door to lowered immunity. Mushrooms don’t naturally contain that much vitamin D, but if they are grown in the presence of ultraviolet light they will produce more. (Check the package for actual content of vitamin D.) Shiitake mushrooms, in particular, may help in this regard, says associate professor of medicine, Dr Gerard Mullin. A study published in the Journal of the American College of Nutrition showed that people who ate 5 or 10 grams of shiitake mushrooms a day had improved markers of immunity, including better-functioning gamma delta T cells and reductions in inflammatory proteins in their blood. Hot sauce A big hit of wasabi or sriracha can feel like it’s clearing your sinuses even when you’re not sick – and it turns out, that could very well be the case. A Cochrane review of research on nasal sprays containing capsaicin, the active compound in chilli peppers and other spicy foods, improves symptoms of nonallergic rhinitis (aka sneezing, congestion) better than a placebo, possibly because of its anti-inflammatory effect. Plus, spicy peppers are another good source of vitamin C. Turmeric Spiking your coffee with this spice, aka a golden latte, won’t hurt. Curcumin, the active compound in the vibrant yellow powder, has anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antiviral properties. “Oxidative stress goes up when your body is under attack,” says Dr Mullin. That can cause residual damage beyond what the invading germs cause. Turmeric, he says, can help with that. YoghurtFermented dairy products may not be your go-to when you’re feeling under the weather, but they should be, says Dr Mullin. “Most of your immune system is in your gut,” he explains, and probiotic-containing foods like yoghurt help keep your gastrointestinal tract teeming with healthy bacteria. Indeed, research has found that the benefits go beyond digestive health: a 2017 study in the journal Nutrients found that eating yoghurt daily increase the activity of killer T cells, whose job it is to destroy infected cells in the body. And there’s no evidence that dairy creates phlegm or contributes to congestion, so spoon away! This article originally appeared on <a href="https://www.readersdigest.com.au/healthsmart/13-foods-doctors-eat-when-they-have-a-cold" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Reader’s Digest</a>.

Body

I just recovered from Omicron – how long does my immunity last?

<div class="copy"> If you recently recovered from an <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/covid/omicron-update-170122/" target="_blank">Omicron infection</a>, do you now have free rein to do whatever you want without risk of reinfection? And if so, for how long? Two main factors affect how well your acquired immunity after Omicron infection will protect you. First, your antibody levels. “If high levels of neutralising antibodies are elicited to Omicron following infection, then we would expect to see some level of protection against reinfection with Omicron, but this is likely to be short-lived,” says Professor Gilda Tachedjian, a virologist at the Burnet Institute and past president of the Australian Virology Society. Generally, a more severe infection generates a higher level of antibodies than an asymptomatic infection, explains Professor Anthony Cunningham, an infectious diseases physician and clinical virologist at the University of Sydney. But when the level of neutralising antibodies begins to drop, your likelihood of reinfection rises. It’s simply too early to know how long Omicron immunity will last, he says. From vaccine studies, we know that antibody levels begin to drop after three to six months. A <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanmic/article/PIIS2666-5247(21)00219-6/fulltext" target="_blank">recent study</a> published in The Lancet estimated that reinfection by SARS-CoV-2 under endemic conditions would likely occur between three months and five years after peak antibody response. Almost certainly, Cunningham says, there will be a lot of individual variation, similar to what has been observed with previous strains. This variation depends on the severity of the disease you experienced, and whether you have had a vaccine. The second factor: emerging variants. Our waning antibodies may not be able to target any new variants that come along. The Omicron variant, for example, largely evades immunity from past infection and vaccines. A recent <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/mrc-global-infectious-disease-analysis/covid-19/report-49-Omicron/" target="_blank">report</a> from Imperial College London estimates that the risk of reinfection with Omicron is 5.4 times greater than that of the Delta variant. “The most likely outcome is that you won’t get re-infected with Omicron because the expectation is that the Omicron wave will decline, but then the greatest risk is that another strain comes along,” says Cunningham. “It all depends on what type of strain comes next.” Even if you have had a recent Omicron infection, don’t throw your mask away, warns Cunningham: “The more virus circulates in the world, the more likely it is that we’ll see new strains.” Although protection from reinfection might not last for long, experts think T-cells might come to the rescue. While antibodies directly bind and neutralise virions, preventing an infection, T-cells activate once the infection is established. They target and kill virus-infected cells, helping to clear the infection and reduce its severity. This arm of the immune response tends to be broader than antibodies – and thus more likely to recognise variants, and to last longer, Tachedjian explains. “Hopefully, you will be asymptomatic or have a less severe disease [the second time around].” Image credits: Getty Images </div> <div id="contributors"> This article was originally published on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/covid/immunity-after-omicron-infection/">cosmosmagazine.com</a> and was written by Dr Manuela Callari. </div>

Body

Meditation could boost your immune system

A <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.scimex.org/newsfeed/how-meditation-could-help-boost-the-immune-system" target="_blank">new study</a> has connected intensive meditation with altered behaviour of over 200 genes tied to immunity, with their findings suggesting that meditation may be beneficial for those with a weakened immune system. The research, recently published in the journal <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.pnas.org/content/118/51/e2110455118" target="_blank">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS)</a>, involved analysing blood samples from 106 volunteers who participated in an intensive Samyama meditation retreat. The participants spent eight days in complete silence, followed a strict vegan diet and regular sleep schedule, and meditated for more than ten hours each day. Several samples were taken from each participant, including one two months before the retreat, another five weeks before, two immediately before and after the retreat, and a final sample three months after it ended. After analysing the gene expression in the samples, the team found that there were “distinct” alterations in how genes were expressed after participants meditated. In particular, they found that 220 genes tied to immunity had higher levels of expression without an increase in inflammation. Sixty-eight of these genes were also tied to signalling proteins called interferons. These proteins help our immune systems to identify viruses and trigger immune cells to fight viral cells, stopping them from multiplying. “These findings suggest that meditation has an immediate impact on immune cells and genes,” the authors wrote. They also discovered that there wasn’t an increase in inflammation Though many studies have found that meditation has a positive impact on our health, this new research investigates what happens inside human cells when we meditate to explain why we experience these positive effects. By examining the gene expression before and after meditation, the authors suggest that meditation could be helpful for treating conditions characterised by a weakened immunity and persistent inflammation. “Together, these results make meditation an effective behavioural intervention for treating various conditions associated with a weakened immune system,” they concluded. Image: Getty Images

Mind

5 life lessons from your immune system

Scientists love analogies. We use them continually to communicate our scientific approaches and discoveries. As an immunologist, it strikes me that many of our recurring analogies for a healthy, functioning immune system promote excellent behaviour traits. In this regard, we should all aim to be a little more like the cells of our immune system and emulate these characteristics in our lives and workplaces. Here are five life lessons from your immune system. 1. Build diverse and collaborative teams Our adaptive immune system works in a very specific way to detect and eradicate infections and cancer. To function, it relies on effective team work. At the centre of this immune system team sits dendritic cells. These are the sentinels and leaders of the immune system – akin to coaches, CEOs and directors. They have usually travelled widely and have a lot of “life experience”. For a dendritic cell, this means they have detected a pathogen in the organs of the body. Perhaps they’ve come into contact with influenza virus in the lung, or encountered dengue fever virus in the skin following a mosquito bite. After such an experience, dendritic cells make their way to their local lymph nodes – organs structured to facilitate immune cell collaboration and teamwork. Here, like the best leaders, dendritic cells share their life experiences and provide vision and direction for their team (multiple other cell types). This gets the immune cell team activated and working together towards a shared goal – the eradication of the pathogen in question. The most important aspect of the dendritic cell strategy is knowing <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/101/46/16385">the strength of combined diverse expertise</a>. It is essential that immune team members come from diverse backgrounds to get the best results. To do this, dendritic cells secrete small molecules known as chemokines. Chemokines facilitate good conversations between different types of immune cells, helping dendritic cells discuss their plans with the team. In immunology, we call this “recruitment”. Much <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-07634-8">like our workplaces</a>, diversity is key here. It’s fair to say, if dendritic cells only recruited more dendritic cells, our immune system would completely fail its job. Dendritic cells instead hire T cells (among others) and share the critical knowledge and strategy to steer effective action of immune cells. T cells can then pass these plans down the line – either preparing themselves to act directly on the pathogen, or working alongside other cell types, such as B cells that make protective antibodies. In this way, dendritic cells establish a rich and diverse team that works together to clear infections or cancer. 2. Learn through positive and negative feedback Immune cells are excellent students. During development, T cells mature in a way that depends on both positive and negative feedback. This occurs in the thymus, an organ found in the front of your chest and whose function was first discovered by Australian scientist <a href="https://www.wehi.edu.au/about-history/notable-scientists/professor-jacques-miller">Jacques Miller</a> (awarded the <a href="http://www.japanprize.jp/en/prize_prof_2018_miller.html">2018 Japan Prize</a> for his discoveries). As they mature, T cells are exposed to a process of trial and error, and take on board criticism and advice in equal measure, to ensure they are “trained” to respond appropriately to what they “see” (for example, molecules from your own body, or from a foreign pathogen) when they leave the thymus. Importantly, this process is balanced, and T cells must receive both positive and negative feedback to mature appropriately – too much of either on its own is not enough. In the diverse team of the immune system, cells can be both the student and the teacher. This occurs during immune responses with intense cross-talk between dendritic cells, T cells and B cells. In this supportive environment, multiple rounds of feedback allow B cells to gain a tighter grip on infections, tailoring antibodies specifically towards each pathogen. The result of this feedback is so powerful, it can divert cells away from acting against your own body, instead converting them into <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29650674">active participants of the immune system team</a>. Developing avenues that promote constructive feedback offers potential to correct autoimmune disorders. 3. A unique response for each situation Our immune system knows that context is important – it doesn’t rely on a “one-size–fits-all” approach to resolve all infections. This allows the cells of our immune system to perfectly respond to different types of pathogens: such as viruses, fungi, bacteria and helminths (worms). In these different scenarios, even though the team members contributing to the response are the same (or similar), our immune system displays emotional intelligence and utilises different tools and strategies depending on the different situations, or pathogens, it encounters. Importantly, our immune system needs to carefully control attack responses to get rid of danger. Being too heavy handed leaves us with collateral tissue damage, such as is seen allergy and asthma. Conversely, weak responses lead to immunodeficiencies, chronic infection or cancer. A major research aim for people working in immunology is to learn how to harness balanced and tailored immune responses for therapeutic benefit. 4. Focus on work/life balance When we are overworked and poorly rested, we don’t function at our peak. The same is true for our immune cells. An overworked immune cell is commonly referred to as being “chronically exhausted”. In this state, T cells are no longer effective at attacking tumour or virus-infected cells. They are lethargic and inefficient, much like us when we overdo it. For T cells, this switch to exhaustion helps ensure a balanced response and avoids collateral damage. However, viruses and cancers exploit this weakness in immune responses by deliberately promoting exhaustion. The rapidly advancing field of immunotherapy has tackled this limitation in our immune system head-on to create new cancer therapeutics. These therapies release cells of their exhaustion, refresh them, so they become effective once more. This therapeutic avenue (called “<a href="https://theconversation.com/2018-nobel-prize-in-physiology-or-medicine-a-turning-point-in-the-war-on-cancer-104191">immune checkpoint inhibition</a>”) is like a self-care day spa for your T cells. It revives them, renewing their determination and efficiency. This has revolutionised the way cancer is treated, leading to the award of the <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2018/press-release/">2018 Nobel prize in Medicine</a> to two of its pioneers, James P. Allison and Tasuku Honjo. 5. Learn from life experiences The cornerstone of our adaptive immune system is the ability to remember our past infections. In doing so, it can respond faster and in a more targeted manner when we encounter the same pathogen multiple times. Quite literally, if it doesn’t kill you, it makes your immune system stronger. Vaccines exploit this modus operandi, providing immune cells with the memories without the risk of infection. Work still remains to identify the pathways that optimise formation of memory cells that drive this response. Researchers aim to discover which memories are the most efficient, and how to make them target particularly recalcitrant infections, such as malaria, HIV-AIDS and seasonal influenza. While life might not have the shortcuts provided by vaccines, certainly taking time to reflect and learn after challenges can allow us to find better, faster solutions to future problems. <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/joanna-groom-550055">Joanna Groom</a>, Laboratory Head, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/walter-and-eliza-hall-institute-822">Walter and Eliza Hall Institute</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-life-lessons-from-your-immune-system-103425">original article</a>.

Body

Are you able to become immune to coronavirus?

As the number of people infected with coronavirus is more than 450,000, scientists are currently wrestling with questions that are left after people recover from the virus. Do people survive the infection become immune to the virus? The answer is luckily, yes but there are some significant unknowns with that as well. As growing immunity in the community is also the way the pandemic ends, scientists are working overtime to figure out what these significant unknowns are and how they’ll impact the larger community. It is currently unclear how long people who have been infected and beaten the virus are left with an immunity against it, with some medical professionals believing that there may be an immunity of at least one to two years. Florian Krammer, a microbiologist at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York, says that even if people became reinfected, the second bout of coronavirus would likely be much milder than the first. “You probably would make a good immune response before you even become symptomatic again and might really blunt the course of the disease,” Dr. Krammer said to <a rel="noopener noreferrer" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/25/health/coronavirus-immunity-antibodies.html" target="_blank">The New York Times</a>. Antibody tests are being used in Singapore, China and a handful of other countries. However, they are just making their way into the West. Antibody tests are the quickest way to assess immunity, as it’s a blood test that looks for protective antibodies in the blood of people who have recovered. “No matter who makes them, as long as they’re reliable, that’s a super nice tool,” Dr. Krammer said. Because this is a new coronavirus, the test should deliver “basically, a yes or no answer, like an H.I.V. test — you can figure out who was exposed and who wasn’t.” Dr Krammer’s tests pick up an antibody response as early as three days after symptoms emerge, but given people might not show symptoms for as long as 14 days after infection, it’s too late for the test to be useful as a diagnostic tool. Ultimately, it’s only with the tests that scientists are using that they will be able to say when enough of the population has become infected and therefore has made people immune.

Body

“Herd immunity” response plan sparks incredulous response

The United Kingdom’s approach to COVID-19 has sparked widespread backlash as scientists urged the government to introduce tougher measures to deal with the pandemic. More than 220 scientists have signed an open letter condemning the government’s chief scientific adviser Sir Patrick Vallance, who said on Friday the spread of the infection could be managed to make the population immune. According to Sir Patrick, about 60 per cent of the population would need to get ill to reach “herd immunity”. The idea means at-risk individuals would be protected from infection because the people around them would be resistant to the disease. “Our aim is to try and reduce the peak, broaden the peak, not suppress it completely,” he said. However, the scientists argued in the letter such option is not “viable” and will risk “many more lives than necessary”. Dr William Hanage, professor of the evolution and epidemiology of infectious disease at Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, said he thought the policy would overwhelm the healthcare system and put high-risk population in danger. Herd immunity only works to protect vulnerable individuals if most people in the population are vaccinated, according to <a href="https://vk.ovg.ox.ac.uk/vk/herd-immunity">Oxford Vaccine Group</a>. “We talk about vaccines generating herd immunity, so why is this different? Because this is not a vaccine,” Dr Hanage wrote on <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/mar/15/epidemiologist-britain-herd-immunity-coronavirus-covid-19">The Guardian</a>. “This is an actual pandemic that will make a very large number of people sick, and some of them will die. “This virus is capable of shutting down countries. You should not want to be the next after Wuhan, Iran, Italy or Spain. In those places, the healthcare systems have broken down.” University of Auckland associate professor Helen Petousis-Harris said a herd immunity strategy means “throwing people under the train”. “When you have that proportion of the community affected, you can probably calculate how many people will be dead,” she told <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/coronavirus/120326939/nz-scientists-horrified-at-herd-immunity-strategy">Stuff.co.nz</a>. “When you have that overwhelming explosion of cases, your health system is overwhelmed and your mortality rate goes up.” Following the criticism, the country’s Prime Minister Boris Johnson on Monday advised people to avoid non-essential travel and contact with others. He also asked households where someone was displaying symptoms to self-isolate for 14 days. At the time of writing, the UK has not introduced mandatory self-isolation measures for international arrivals.

Caring

Immune-boosting papaya smoothie bowl

This smoothie bowl will help you start your day right. Add in your favourite berries as preferred. Recipe: Jade Woodd – Panaceas Pantry Ingredients: <ul> <li>1/2 Ruby Rise Red Papaya cut into cubes (skin removed) and frozen first</li> <li>1 cup raspberries</li> <li>1/2 cup activated buckwheat (or sub for cashews)</li> <li>2 cm length fresh ginger, skin removed</li> <li>2/3 cup coconut milk</li> <li>2/3 cup water</li> </ul> Method: Add everything to a high-speed blender. Blitz and very smooth. Enjoy immediately, topped with whatever you fancy!

Food & Wine

How this “superhero” dad's tiredness turned into a rare disease

A healthy father of two thought he was just suffering from fatigue before he was struck with an extremely rare disease that left him partially paralysed in June. Sam Hambly from the Sunshine Coast was left bed-ridden in hospital after he was left with the news he had Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS) - an auto-immune disorder where the immune system attacks nerves connecting the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body. <blockquote style="background: #FFF; border: 0; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: 0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width: 540px; min-width: 326px; padding: 0; width: calc(100% - 2px);" class="instagram-media" data-instgrm-captioned="" data-instgrm-permalink="https://www.instagram.com/p/BzafrivhSOD/" data-instgrm-version="12"> <div style="padding: 16px;"> <div style="display: flex; flex-direction: row; align-items: center;"> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 50%; flex-grow: 0; height: 40px; margin-right: 14px; width: 40px;"></div> <div style="display: flex; flex-direction: column; flex-grow: 1; justify-content: center;"> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 4px; flex-grow: 0; height: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; width: 100px;"></div> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 4px; flex-grow: 0; height: 14px; width: 60px;"></div> </div> </div> <div style="padding: 19% 0;"></div> <div style="display: block; height: 50px; margin: 0 auto 12px; width: 50px;"></div> <div style="padding-top: 8px;"> <div style="color: #3897f0; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: 550; line-height: 18px;">View this post on Instagram</div> </div> <a style="color: #000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 17px; text-decoration: none; word-wrap: break-word;" rel="noopener" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/BzafrivhSOD/" target="_blank">I can’t wait to see you smile again 😍</a> <p style="color: #c9c8cd; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 17px; margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 8px; overflow: hidden; padding: 8px 0 7px; text-align: center; text-overflow: ellipsis; white-space: nowrap;">A post shared by <a style="color: #c9c8cd; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 17px;" rel="noopener" href="https://www.instagram.com/amyshambly/" target="_blank"> Amy Hambly</a> (@amyshambly) on Jul 2, 2019 at 5:14am PDT </div> </blockquote> Both Sam and his wife, had no idea what was in store for them when the 27-year-old dad was left feeling exhausted all the time a little over a month ago. “He started getting really tired, he didn’t have the strength to go to the gym,” Amy, 27, explained to <a href="https://au.news.yahoo.com/super-hero-dad-suddenly-paralysed-after-contracting-rare-disease-035035949.html">Yahoo News Australia. </a> “But he was just so determined to keep working, he just didn’t think anything of it.” <blockquote style="background: #FFF; border: 0; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: 0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width: 540px; min-width: 326px; padding: 0; width: calc(100% - 2px);" class="instagram-media" data-instgrm-captioned="" data-instgrm-permalink="https://www.instagram.com/p/ByWTdiAHZ8g/" data-instgrm-version="12"> <div style="padding: 16px;"> <div style="display: flex; flex-direction: row; align-items: center;"> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 50%; flex-grow: 0; height: 40px; margin-right: 14px; width: 40px;"></div> <div style="display: flex; flex-direction: column; flex-grow: 1; justify-content: center;"> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 4px; flex-grow: 0; height: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; width: 100px;"></div> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 4px; flex-grow: 0; height: 14px; width: 60px;"></div> </div> </div> <div style="padding: 19% 0;"></div> <div style="display: block; height: 50px; margin: 0 auto 12px; width: 50px;"></div> <div style="padding-top: 8px;"> <div style="color: #3897f0; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: 550; line-height: 18px;">View this post on Instagram</div> </div> <a style="color: #000; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 17px; text-decoration: none; word-wrap: break-word;" rel="noopener" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/ByWTdiAHZ8g/" target="_blank">Today should be a happy day filled with celebrations, Jack Daniels and cake. But instead it’s a effing shit day that I think we will both want to forget but never the less... HAPPY BIRTHDAY SAMMY! Your without doubt the strongest human I know mentally. I hate that your going through this let alone on your birthday but Darcy, Leo and I love you so so much! Your the backbone of our family and we wouldn’t be complete without you! I hope you start feeling better really soon. I’m proud of how your handling what life has thrown at you and I will always be by your side to take care of you when you can’t and support you when you need me. Crossing my fingers for you to be feeling like your usual self soon and for this to all be a distant memory! Love you always bub. Stay strong 💙</a> <p style="color: #c9c8cd; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 17px; margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 8px; overflow: hidden; padding: 8px 0 7px; text-align: center; text-overflow: ellipsis; white-space: nowrap;">A post shared by <a style="color: #c9c8cd; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 17px;" rel="noopener" href="https://www.instagram.com/amyshambly/" target="_blank"> Amy Hambly</a> (@amyshambly) on Jun 5, 2019 at 5:39pm PDT </div> </blockquote> Sam began experiencing even stranger symptoms when he had a bout of gastro, followed by a sore throat and numbness in his toes. Soon the numbness had spread to his feet and although he was persevering at his job as a plumber, he found it even more difficult to control his limbs. “...His legs gave way at work – he collapsed,” Amy explained. Despite his worrying, his symptoms were warded off by medical professionals who believed he had sinus issues and sent him home with Endone and medication. However, the couple soon realised Sam’s “left eye wasn’t shutting and we thought it was the Endone,” Amy said. The next day, the “the whole left side of his face wasn’t moving – I thought he’d had a stroke.” Sam was rushed to the hospital and later he was diagnosed with GBS after a series of tests. “Sam can move his legs but he can’t feel them,” Amy said. “His face is paralysed so his face doesn’t move. His arms and legs he can move but he can’t feel.” While the sad situation has taken a toll on their family, the support they have received from the community has been overwhelming. To ease the burden on the couple, a friend set up a <a href="https://www.gofundme.com/help-out-the-hambly039s?utm_source=facebook&utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=fb_dn_cpgnstaticsmall_r&fbclid=IwAR2FUCPh5WOCHkgEZTbz_VyvxqNLWkh1v_INKTd2fCr184HXllktSqMPar0">GoFundMe</a> page. “We might not be able to help Sam get back on his feet sooner although we can help to take some of the financial burden off his shoulders so he can concentrate on getting back to his normal superhero Daddy, strong self,” the crowdfunding page reads. “Sam’s one of those people that likes to do things himself and provide for himself. He’s so happy and generous – but he can’t believe the help and support he’s had,” Amy said. “I can’t believe it, I can’t say thank you enough, it just shows how supportive everyone on the Sunshine Coast is. It’s just beautiful really. Hopefully one day I can pay it forward.” While the road to recovery is long, Sam has returned home from hospital and since continued on his journey to “heal surrounded by his family.”

Legal

Boost your immune system naturally this winter

Louise Hallinan is the international award-winning author of Smart Brain Healthy Brain and a Natural Health Practitioner. She founded the <a href="http://www.smartbrainhealthcentre.com.au/" target="_blank">Smart Brain Health Centre</a> in Sydney which specialises in mood and memory problems. Winter is here which for many people can mean getting a cold or flu again this year. If this is you, then you don’t have to put up with getting sick again this winter. The best way to avoid getting colds and flu this season is to boost your immune system naturally. Eating the right foods and supplementing with the vitamins, minerals and nutrients is the natural way to boost your immune system this winter to make sure that you can avoid the coughs, colds and flu this season. There are quite a few vitamin and minerals that will help to support our immune system, but I have found that vitamin C, zinc, garlic and vitamin D are some of the best and most effective. Vitamin C Vitamin C is really a powerhouse when it comes to boosting your immune system. It is a water-soluble vitamin and the dosage taken for Vitamin C powder that would be beneficial is 1,500mg daily. A deficiency in vitamin C has been related to an increase in the frequency and length of time you have the cold. Food sources of Vitamin C It is important to obtain vitamin C from the foods you eat. Some suggestions are: Berries, citrus fruits and green vegetables. Asparagus, avocados, broccoli, brussels sprouts, capsicums, grapefruit, lemons, oranges, pineapple, kiwifruit, strawberries, papayas, spinach, kale, onions, parsley, green peas, tomatoes, red chilli and radishes. Zinc Zinc is an important mineral needed to boost your immune system. Zinc is needed in small amounts every day in order to maintain health and perform important functions each day. Zinc benefits the body in many ways, helps with hormone production, growth and repair, improves immunity and helps with digestion. Zinc acts as an anti-inflammatory agent therefore zinc may have significant therapeutic benefits for several common chronic diseases. Food sources of Zinc We can obtain zinc from foods such as pumpkin seeds, cashews, chickpeas, mushrooms, grass fed beef, lamb, chicken and spinach. Garlic Garlic has anti-microbial, anti-viral and anti-fungal properties that can really help to prevent and relieve the common cold and other infections. The compound found in garlic, Allicin, is highly effective at killing countless micro-organisms responsible for some of the most common and rarest infections including the common cold. Make sure that you include garlic in your diet, either raw or cooked. Another way of obtaining the beneficial effect of raw garlic (as cooking reduces some its health promoting compounds) is to supplement with Kyolic aged garlic extract. Vitamin D Our modern lifestyle does not always allow for lots of time outdoors and as a result we don’t get the levels of Vitamin D that are required to keep our immune system strong. Vitamin D enhances our immune system. Our immune cells contain receptors for Vitamin D and it has been shown that it seems to prevent prolonged or excessive inflammatory responses. Two types of Vitamin D It is important to know that there are two types of Vitamin D – Vitamin D2 and Vitamin D3. Vitamin D2 is the synthetic form of Vitamin D and is not suitable as a supplement. Vitamin D3 is the form of vitamin D that occurs naturally in the human body and is also nine times more effective than vitamin D2. The dosage of Vitamin D3 supplement is 1,000 IU daily. Food sources of Vitamin D We can also obtain vitamin D from foods such as cod liver oil, butter, egg yolk, oatmeal, salmon, sardines, sweet potatoes and tuna.

Body

Yoga exercises to boost your immune system

Tracy Adshead is a yoga teacher specialising in yoga for seniors. She is passionate about bringing healing and healthy ageing to the community. Seasonal changes bring challenges to the immune system, the thought of winter ailments often sees us reaching for an extra dose of vitamin C. If you’re living in a place that becomes cold and dark in the winter months you might like to add a few simple yoga practices to your daily routine to boost immunity. The immune system is made up of many components including the tonsils, thymus gland, digestive tract, lymphatic and circulatory systems. Each of these systems plays an important role in helping your body to fight off invaders like bacteria and viruses. The immune system changes with age, it becomes slower to respond so if you’re thinking that ‘an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure’ read on: 1. Do the twist All of your internal organs have their nerve endings in your spine and nerves control the body’s functions, including sensation and movement. Moving the spine with gentle twisting is extremely beneficial for the internal organs. Gentle daily twist: Before you get up in the morning, draw your knees up towards your chest. Take a breath in and as you exhale let both legs relax over to the right. Inhale the knees back to the centre, exhale them over to the left. Add on: turn your head away from your knees with each twist to move the whole spine. 3 to 5 times to each side. 2. Practice inversions Inversions, such as legs up the wall, help to circulate lymph fluid through the lymphatic system - this is your body’s ‘rubbish collection’ service. It rids the body of toxins and other unwanted materials and transports immune cells around the body to fight off infection, significantly contributing to the workings of immunity in the body. Here’s a couple of ways to practice inversions from reclining on your back. <ol> <li>Place your calf muscles on to the seat of a chair </li> <li>In bed place 3 or 4 pillows underneath your lower legs and ankles </li> <li>On the floor, sit with your right hip against the wall and as you lie back swings your legs up on to the wall. Stay here for 5 deep breaths.</li> </ol> Remember when you come out of an inversion pay attention to your blood pressure, roll on to your side and stay here for a few deep breaths. If there is pounding between your ears stay here a little longer. Sit up slowly. 3. Use your breath Look after your lungs through winter with this easy yoga practice to increase the intake of oxygen, helping to build resistance to infection. A study from 1992 (yes, 1992) assessed whether arm positions affects air intake and oxygen consumption. The researchers found that when subjects held their arms at shoulder height whilst breathing, their oxygen consumption was higher compared to when subjects held their arms by their sides. These benefits continued for two minutes after their arms were lowered. It makes you wonder why we don’t all do this! From standing or seated: Inhale, count to 4, lift your arms up level with your shoulders, as you exhale count the breath out for 8 and lower your arms down. Repeat 3 to 5 times. Follow Tracy on <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TracyChairYoga/" target="_blank">Facebook</a>.

Body

4 surprising ways this powerful tea boosts your immune system

Erin Young is the founder of boutique Australian tea company <a href="http://www.zengreentea.com.au/" target="_blank">Zen Green Tea</a>, who specialise in premium matcha green tea powder. Matcha green tea powder is one of the healthiest beverages in the world- it’s rich with antioxidants, vitamins, minerals and nutrients. Matcha green tea powder helps boost your immune system in four surprising ways, from helping you ward off the flu this winter to reducing inflammation. Immune system boost 1: matcha green tea powder fights the flu Matcha green tea powder’s high antioxidant content, particularly Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG) assists your body’s production of T-Cells which reduce inflammation and fight pathogens. This makes matcha green tea powder a great immune system booster during the winter flu season. Immune system boost 2: matcha naturally detoxifies Matcha is a powerhouse of chlorophyll (where the vibrant green comes from!) due to the unique shading process the tea plants undergo. As a result, matcha helps detoxify the body of harmful chemicals, toxins and heavy metals. Immune system boost 3: matcha kills bacteria Matcha contains a high level of both flavonoids and antioxidants which form a powerful anti-bacterial defence force! The flavonoids will eliminate bad breath, kill off bacteria from viruses/infections while the flavonoids are perfect for soothing a sore throat! Immune system boost 4: matcha reduces inflammation Matcha green tea powder can help reduce inflammation and arthritis pain because of its active ingredient EGCG which is a powerful antioxidant that works to stop the production of certain inflammatory chemicals in the body. Matcha contains a much higher level of EGCG compared to standard green tea bags making it the perfect immune system boosting drink. How do you manage to ward off cold and flu? Share your tips with us in the comments below.

Body

6 simple ways to boost your immune system

Written by naturopath and nutritional consultant with Australis Natural Health College, Stephen Eddey. When we think of boosting immunity, it is usually in the lead up to cold and flu season. The trouble is, it can often be too late by then. A better approach is to aim to keep our immune system strong throughout the year so that we’re not as vulnerable to illness when the seasons change. Follow these tips to increase your immunity not just in winter, but all year around. 1. Sweat regularly Exercise boosts your heart rate, which helps to remove toxins from the body and improve circulation of immunity boosting white blood cells. Aim for moderate physical activity on most – preferably all – days of the week to reap the health benefits- even getting out of the house for a brisk walk is better than nothing. 2. Swap sugary snacks for fruit Craving a chocolate bar or a sugary treat? When you have a hankering for something sweet, choose a vitamin C-rich piece of fruit instead, such as an orange, grapefruit or even a pineapple. The sweetness of the fruit will give your body the pick-me-up it needs and the vitamin C and antioxidants will help to support your immune system, leaving you less susceptible to colds and flu. 3. Try olive leaf extract Fresh-picked olive leaf extract<a href="http://www.olea.com.au/" target="_blank"></a> is a powerful antioxidant. It’s known for its capacity to combat free radicals that tend to weaken our immune system, making us more susceptible to catching cold and flu. Fresh-picked olive leaf extract<a href="http://olea.com.au/" target="_blank"></a> is traditionally used in Herbal Medicine to support the immune system and general wellbeing. 4. Go outside Vitamin D helps to regulate the body’s levels of calcium and phosphorus, which are essential minerals needed for bone and teeth development. It also assists with healthy immune function, helping to stave off diseases and speeding up recovery. Vitamin D can be taken as a supplement or found in some foods, but the easiest way to boost your body’s vitamin D levels is to spend around ten minutes in the sunshine every day. Just make sure that you are avoiding damaging UV rays in the middle of the day by aiming to head out in the morning or late in the afternoon. 5. Let go of stress It may be easier said than done, but managing stress is crucial for a strong immune system. Tension and stress wreak havoc on the body and may result in symptoms such as weight gain and even cardiovascular disease. If you’re feeling overwhelmed, try taking a walk in the fresh air or practice meditative breathing techniques. 6. Have more fun Laughter helps you to relax, reduces your stress levels, and leaves you feeling happier and more optimistic – and all of those things contribute to a strong immune system. If you’re starting to feel burnt out, don’t forget to schedule time for fun activities such hobbies, favourite sporting activities, or catch-ups with family and friends. A nice dinner with people you love can do wonders for your state of mind and leave you feeling relaxed and refreshed. What food do you turn to when you’re craving something sweet? Let us know in the comments below. Related links: <a href="/health/body/2016/08/habits-of-people-who-do-not-get-sick/">6 habits of people who don’t get sick</a> <a href="/health/body/2016/08/guidelines-for-winter-eating/">4 guidelines for winter eating</a> <a href="/health/body/2016/08/energising-alternatives-to-coffee/">5 energising alternatives to coffee</a>

Body

How you can build up your immune system this winter

The majority of people will suffer the misery of the common cold at least once each winter. The runny nose, sore throat, and general stuffed-up feeling can make it difficult to get on with your day. But there are a few tricks you can keep up your sleeve in order to try and dodge the germy bullet. By increasing your body’s natural immunity you’ll have a better chance of keeping the colds and flu away. <ul> <li>Include plenty of vitamin C in your diet. Aim for 500-1000mg daily. If you enjoy plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables, herbs, and garlic these will also help keep your body ready to fight back. Choose carrots, spinach, oranges, grapefruit, fresh horseradish, onions, chives, green capsicum, cabbage, brussels sprouts, tomatoes and turnips as they are all good sources of vitamin C.</li> <li>Include garlic in your diet as much as you can as it can boost your body’s defences and allow it to fight infection. This tiny flavour booster is packed with vitamins A, B and C, copper, sulphur, manganese, iron and calcium.</li> <li>You can also try taking a preventive daily dose of Echinacea. This is thought to reduce your risk of catching a cold or flu as it helps enhance the immune system. You can buy it from chemists or health food stores as tablets or in a herbal tea. Also try rose hip tea as another barrier to infection. It contains vitamin C too, as well as vitamins A, B and E.</li> <li>Keep the germs in your home at bay by spraying this homemade disinfectant spray regularly. Start off by adding 10ml of methylated spirit to 500ml of water in a spray bottle, and then add 20 drops of lavender oil, five drops of lemon oil, and five drops of eucalyptus oil. Spray on a fine mist setting and use as a room deodoriser.</li> </ul>

Mind

Foods that will boost your immunity this winter

While your immunity is affected by your things like stress, smoking, health issues and your environment – what has the most effect on your body’s ability to fight off infection is what you eat. And while healthy food in general is a great start, there are certain nutrients that you need to be sure to include. Try adding these nutritious foods to your shopping trolley every week. Kale and spinach offer a powerhouse of vitamins – think A, B, C and other immunity supporting nutrients. Garlic is a great choice for flu season, as its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties are good at warding off colds. Mushrooms are a source of beta glucans, which boost the body’s immune system. Look for shitake or maitake mushrooms as they contain the most benefit. Pumpkin is a good quality source of beta-carotene, which converts to Vitamin A. This nutrient is essential for immune function. Berries are not only delicious, they’re packed with Vitamin C and antioxidants, which help the body defend itself against damage. Tahini is a paste made from sesame seeds. It is high in protein and zinc, which is great for the production and function of immune cells. Plain natural yoghurt is full of natural probiotics. These support your immune system as they keep your digestive system in good shape. If you find it hard to stick with a healthy diet, or perhaps you are just worried that you aren’t getting enough of the good stuff – you could try taking supplements. Many of these contain nutrients that are not easily consumed through food, so could be worth taking. Speak to your health care practitioner first to see if you would benefit. As well as the healthy food, try to get enough sleep to make you feel well rested when you wake. Aim to exercise and take in the sunshine regularly, but also find time to relax and de-stress. All of these factors have a role to play in your health and wellness.

Insurance

Over 60

News

Shop

Catalogues

Travel

Health

Lifestyle

Finance

Entertainment

Property

Information

Keep up to date

Search

How long does immunity last after a COVID infection?

How biological differences between men and women alter immune responses – and affect women’s health