Mind

Retiring early can be bad for the brain

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/plamen-v-nikolov-1112610">Plamen V Nikolov</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/binghamton-university-state-university-of-new-york-2252">Binghamton University, State University of New York</a> The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work. <h2>The big idea</h2> People who retire early suffer from accelerated cognitive decline and may even encounter early onset of dementia, according to a I conducted with my doctoral student <a href="https://sites.google.com/binghamton.edu/alan-adelman/home">Alan Adelman</a>. To establish that finding, we examined the effects of a rural pension program China introduced in 2009 that provided people who participated with a stable income if they stopped working after the official retirement age of 60. We found that people who participated in the program and retired within one or two years experienced a cognitive decline equivalent to a drop in general intelligence of 1.7% relative to the general population. This drop is equivalent to about three IQ points and could make it harder for someone to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700008412">adhere to a medication schedule</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-%205890.2007.00052.x">conduct financial planning</a>. The largest negative effect was in what is called “delayed recall,” which measures a person’s ability to remember something mentioned several minutes ago. Neurological research <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.1991.00530150046016">links problems in this area to an early onset of dementia</a>. <h2>Why it matters</h2> Cognitive decline refers to when a person has trouble remembering, learning new things, concentrating or making decisions that affect their everyday life. Although some cognitive decline appears to be an inevitable byproduct of aging, faster decline can have profound adverse consequences on one’s life. Better understanding of the causes of this has powerful financial consequences. Cognitive skills – the mental processes of gathering and processing information to solve problems, adapt to situations and learn from experiences – are crucial for decision-making. They influence an individual’s ability to process information and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1818642">are connected to higher earnings</a> and a <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1257/jep.25.1.159">better quality of life</a>. Retiring early and working less or not at all can generate large benefits, such as reduced stress, better diets and more sleep. But as we found, it also has unintended adverse effects, like fewer social activities and less time spent challenging the mind, that far outweighed the positives. While retirement schemes like the 401(k) and similar programs in other countries <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1023/B:PUCH.0000035859.20258.e0">are typically introduced to ensure the welfare of aging adults</a>, our research suggests they need to be designed carefully to avoid unintended and significant adverse consequences. When people consider retirement, they should weigh the benefits with the significant downsides of a sudden lack of mental activity. A good way to ameliorate these effects is to stay engaged in social activities and continue to use your brains in the same way you did when you were working. In short, we show that if you rest, you rust. <h2>What still isn’t known</h2> Because we are using data and a program in China, the mechanisms of how retirement induces cognitive decline could be context-specific and may not necessarily apply to people in other countries. For example, cultural differences or other policies that can provide support to individuals in old age can buffer some of the negative effects that we see in rural China due to the increase in social isolation and reduced mental activities. Therefore, we can not definitively say that the findings will extrapolate to other countries. We are looking for data from other countries’ retirement programs, such as India’s, to see if the effects are similar or how they are different. <h2>How I do my research</h2> A big focus of the <a href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/pnikolov/my-research-group-1">economics research lab</a> I run is to <a href="http://www.nber.org/%7Enikolovp/research.html">better understand</a> the causes and consequences of changes in what economists call <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-capital">“human capital”</a> – especially cognitive skills – in the context of developing countries. Our lab’s mission is to generate research to inform economic policies and empower individuals in low-income countries to rise out of poverty. One of the main ways we do this is through the use of randomized controlled trials to measure the impact of a particular intervention, such as retiring early or access to microcredit, on education outcomes, productivity and health decisions. <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/plamen-v-nikolov-1112610">Plamen V Nikolov</a>, Assistant Professor of Economics, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/binghamton-university-state-university-of-new-york-2252">Binghamton University, State University of New York</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/retiring-early-can-be-bad-for-the-brain-145603">original article</a>.

Mind

Making art is a uniquely human act, and one that provides a wellspring of health benefits

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/girija-kaimal-1486183">Girija Kaimal</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/drexel-university-1074">Drexel University</a> When you think about the word “art,” what comes to mind? A child’s artwork pinned to the fridge? A favorite artist whose work always inspires? Abstract art that is hard to understand? Each of these assumes that making art is something that other people do, such as children or “those with talent.” However, as I explain in my book “<a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-expressive-instinct-9780197646229?q=the%20expressive%20instinct&lang=en&cc=ca">The Expressive Instinct</a>,” art is intrinsic to human evolution and history. Just as sports or workouts exercise the body, creating art exercises the imagination and is essential to mental as well as physical well-being. I am a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=C8R2XOYAAAAJ&hl=en">professor of art therapy</a> who studies how creative self-expression affects physical and emotional health. In our clinical research studies, my colleagues and I are finding that any form of creative self-expression – including drawing, painting, fiber arts, woodworking or photography – can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08322473.2017.1375827">reduce stress</a>, improve mood and increase self-confidence. As a sickly child who needed to stay home from school a lot, I found that making art helped me cope. Today, creating art is my sanctuary. I use it as a sounding board to better understand myself and a way to recharge and learn from the challenges of life. <h2>The uniquely human attribute of creativity</h2> Although everyone has their own concept of what defines art, one thing is universally true: Creativity is a defining feature of the human species. How so? Well, human brains are not computers processing data. They are biological prediction machines that perceive the environment through memories and the senses, with the capacity to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2010.00025">use that information to imagine</a> plausible future scenarios. These inherent predictive and imaginative capacities are the wellspring of humanity’s abilities to survive and thrive – because self-expression is a safety valve that helps us cope with uncertainty. No one truly knows the future; they must live each day not sure of what will happen tomorrow. Art can help us all practice this imaginative muscle in a useful way. In our study examining brain activity while using virtual reality tools to create 3-D digital artwork, my team demonstrated that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07421656.2021.1957341">creative expression is a natural state of being</a>. The brain naturally uses fewer cognitive resources to be expressive and creative, compared with the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07421656.2021.1957341">brain power needed to do a rote task</a> that requires conscious effort. Seemingly ordinary everyday activities can provide opportunities to tap into one’s natural creativity and imagination: whipping up a meal from leftovers, figuring out an alternate route to work, dancing a little jig in response to hearing a song, or planting and tending a garden. We have repeatedly found in our studies that even a single session of real and honest self-expression can improve self-confidence and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1534735420912835">reduce feelings of stress</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejon.2019.08.006">anxiety and burnout</a>. This is partly because <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aip.2017.05.004">creativity activates reward pathways</a> in the brain. Using our hands and bodies to express ourselves activates dopamine pathways and helps us feel good. Dopamine is a neural messenger that is associated with feeling a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajpath.2015.09.023">sense of hope, accomplishment or reward</a>. Our brains are wired to secrete <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-experiencing-flow-feel-so-good-a-communication-scientist-explains-173505">feel-good hormones whenever we move</a>, create something or engage in any type of expressive activity. Tapping into the creative resources within is <a href="https://theconversation.com/drawing-making-music-and-writing-poetry-can-support-healing-and-bring-more-humanity-to-health-care-in-us-hospitals-204684">one of the most underrated seeds of well-being</a> in the world. By comparison, bottling up or <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-the-secrets-you-keep-are-hurting-you/">denying these feelings can cause distress</a>, anxiety and fear because we have not processed and expressed them. This is probably one of the reasons why every community around the world has its own creative and expressive practices. Even our ancestors in Indigenous communities all around the world intuitively knew that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aip.2021.101879">self-expression was essential</a> to emotional health and social connection. Being unable to share our lives, <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-the-secrets-you-keep-are-hurting-you/">keeping secrets</a> and feeling isolated and lonely tend <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.02.002">to worsen our health</a>. To our brains, social isolation feels like a chronic disease because it interprets this loneliness and inability to express as a threat to survival. Since creative expression can engage the senses, it can also be a body workout: a sensual as well as emotional and cognitive experience. Being active in expression – be it art, music, dance, drama, writing, culinary arts or working with nature – imparts a sense of confidence and hope that <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-expressive-instinct-9780197646229?q=the%20expressive%20instinct&lang=en&cc=ca">challenges can be navigated and overcome</a>. <h2>The role of art therapy</h2> Given the integral role of art in our lives, it makes sense that making art can help people manage transitions, adversity and trauma, such as the stresses of puberty, the death of a loved one or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejon.2019.08.006">experiencing a serious illness</a>. According to a global study, 1 in 2 people will experience a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(23)00193-1">mental-health-related challenge in their lifetime</a>, whether from life’s challenges, genetic predispositions or a combination of the two. This is where art therapy can come in. Art therapy is <a href="https://arttherapy.org/about-art-therapy/">a regulated mental health profession</a> in which clinical psychotherapists with extensive clinical training offer psychotherapy to patients with diagnosed mental health needs. The origins of art therapy go back to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-021448">attempts to treat soldiers struggling with post-traumatic stress</a> during the 20th century’s two world wars. Today there is evidence that traumatic experiences tend to be stored as <a href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7316-0473">sounds, images and physical sensations</a> in the brain. When someone <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.20825">lacks the words</a> to process these experiences through traditional talk therapy, art therapy can provide an indirect way to express and externalize those feelings and memories. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/e-IiUcUVAwk?wmode=transparent&start=3" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>The process of making art can help people process feelings that they aren’t able to put into words.</figcaption></figure> One of art therapy’s unique strengths is that it provides nonverbal ways of communicating, processing and eventually managing the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, or PTSD. In fact, in a recent study, my team has found that a personal history of trauma is related to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1337927">how people react to evocative images</a>. Images of distress and pain resonate with us when we have known similar kinds of distress ourselves. This implies that our life stories make us sensitized to distress in others and even personalize it more. Creative self-expression is especially relevant in coping with trauma because it provides an outlet through which a person <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1534735420912835">can regain a sense of agency</a> and control. <h2>How to bring creativity into daily life</h2> For those new to exploring art as a creative pursuit or for well-being reasons, engaging in creative activities begins with letting go of unrealistic expectations. Being creative isn’t about becoming a famous artist or even a mediocre one. It is about allowing ourselves to flex the creative muscle that we all have and enjoying all the sensory and emotional aspects of imagining. Next, think about activities that made you feel free to explore when you were a child. Did you like singing, playing in the outdoors, dancing, making up pretend plays, or writing little tales? Allow yourself to indulge in any and all of these creative pursuits that made you feel relaxed and joyful. A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aip.2021.101879">cultural tradition</a>, tinkering with electronics, making a gift for someone or simply paying attention to everyday beauty – any of these can be a creative activity. And just like any muscle, the more you exercise it, the stronger it becomes. Over time, you will notice yourself getting more confident and adventurous in your creative practices. Whatever it is, make time for this creative pursuit every week – which is possibly the hardest step of them all. If it seems “unimportant” compared with the demands of daily life, such as work or family, try thinking of it as another form of sustenance. Remember that creativity is just as critical to human health as <a href="https://theconversation.com/helping-children-eat-healthier-foods-may-begin-with-getting-parents-to-do-the-same-research-suggests-225157">eating nutritious meals</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/yoga-modern-research-shows-a-variety-of-benefits-to-both-body-and-mind-from-the-ancient-practice-197662">getting exercise</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-best-diet-for-healthy-sleep-a-nutritional-epidemiologist-explains-what-food-choices-will-help-you-get-more-restful-zs-219955">good rest</a>. So as the Latin saying goes: “Plene vivere.” Live fully. <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/girija-kaimal-1486183">Girija Kaimal</a>, Professor of Art Therapy Research, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/drexel-university-1074">Drexel University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/making-art-is-a-uniquely-human-act-and-one-that-provides-a-wellspring-of-health-benefits-219091">original article</a>.

Mind

What’s the difference between a psychopath and a sociopath? Less than you might think

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/bruce-watt-1486350">Bruce Watt</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/katarina-fritzon-402205">Katarina Fritzon</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> Articles about badly behaved people and how to spot them are common. You don’t have to Google or scroll too much to find headlines such as <a href="https://psychologyeverywhere.com/articles/7-signs-your-boss-is-a-psychopath/">7 signs your boss is a psychopath</a> or <a href="https://www.elephantjournal.com/2022/08/how-to-avoid-the-sociopath-next-door-erica-leibrandt/">How to avoid the sociopath next door</a>. You’ll often see the terms psychopath and sociopath used somewhat interchangeably. That applies to perhaps the most famous badly behaved fictional character of all – Hannibal Lecter, the cannibal serial killer from <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0102926/">The Silence of the Lambs</a>. In the book on which the movie is based, Lecter is described as a “pure sociopath”. But in the movie, he’s described as a “pure psychopath”. Psychiatrists have diagnosed him with <a href="https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2002.56.1.100">something else</a> entirely. So what’s the difference between a psychopath and a sociopath? As we’ll see, these terms have been used at different times in history, and relate to some overlapping concepts. <h2>What’s a psychopath?</h2> Psychopathy has been mentioned in the psychiatric literature <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/#:%7E:text=The%20term%20psychopathy%20comes%20from,which%20literally%20means%20suffering%20soul.">since the 1800s</a>. But the latest edition of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (known colloquially as the DSM) <a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm">doesn’t list</a> it as a recognised clinical disorder. <a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm/about-dsm/history-of-the-dsm#section_5">Since the 1950s</a>, labels have changed and terms such as “sociopathic personality disturbance” have been replaced with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK546673/">antisocial personality disorder</a>, which is what we have today. Someone with antisocial personality disorder has a persistent disregard for the rights of others. This includes breaking the law, repeated lying, impulsive behaviour, getting into fights, disregarding safety, irresponsible behaviours, and indifference to the consequences of their actions. To add to the confusion, the section in the DSM on antisocial personality disorder mentions psychopathy (and sociopathy) traits. In other words, according to the DSM the traits are part of antisocial personality disorder but are not mental disorders themselves. US psychiatrist <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-37736-001">Hervey Cleckley</a> provided the first formal description of psychopathy traits in his 1941 book <a href="https://gwern.net/doc/psychology/personality/psychopathy/1941-cleckley-maskofsanity.pdf">The Mask of Sanity</a>. He based his description on his clinical observations of nine male patients in a psychiatric hospital. He identified several key characteristics, including superficial charm, unreliability and a lack of remorse or shame. <a href="https://psych.ubc.ca/profile/robert-hare/">Canadian psychologist</a> Professor <a href="http://www.hare.org/">Robert Hare</a> refined these characteristics by emphasising interpersonal, emotional and lifestyle characteristics, in addition to the antisocial behaviours listed in the DSM. When we draw together all these strands of evidence, we can say a psychopath manipulates others, shows superficial charm, is grandiose and is persistently deceptive. Emotional traits include a lack of emotion and empathy, indifference to the suffering of others, and not accepting responsibility for how their behaviour impacts others. Finally, a psychopath is easily bored, sponges off others, lacks goals, and is persistently irresponsible in their actions. <h2>So how about a sociopath?</h2> The term sociopath first appeared <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/#:%7E:text=The%20term%20psychopathy%20comes%20from,which%20literally%20means%20suffering%20soul.">in the 1930s</a>, and was attributed to US psychologist George Partridge. He <a href="https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/ajp.85.6.1053?journalCode=ajp">emphasised</a> the societal consequences of behaviour that habitually violates the rights of others. Academics and clinicians often used the terms sociopath and psychopath interchangeably. But some <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/#:%7E:text=The%20term%20psychopathy%20comes%20from,which%20literally%20means%20suffering%20soul.">preferred the term sociopath</a> because they said the public sometimes confused the word psychopath with psychosis. “Sociopathic personality disturbance” <a href="https://www.turkpsikiyatri.org/arsiv/dsm-1952.pdf">was the term</a> used in the first edition of the DSM in 1952. This aligned with the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1177/0306624X01453005">prevailing views</a> at the time that antisocial behaviours were largely the product of the social environment, and that behaviours were only judged as deviant if they broke social, legal, and/or cultural rules. Some of these early descriptions of sociopathy are more aligned with what we now call antisocial personality disorder. Others relate to emotional characteristics similar to Cleckley’s 1941 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26618655/">definition</a> of a psychopath. In short, different people had different ideas about sociopathy and, even today, sociopathy is less-well defined than psychopathy. So there is no single definition of sociopathy we can give you, even today. But in general, its antisocial behaviours can be similar to ones we see with psychopathy. Over the decades, the term sociopathy fell out of favour. From the late 60s, psychiatrists used the term antisocial personality disorder instead. <h2>Born or made?</h2> Both “sociopathy” (what we now call antisocial personality disorder) and psychopathy have been associated with a wide range of developmental, biological and psychological causes. For example, people with psychopathic traits have <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/may/12/how-to-spot-a-murderers-brain">certain brain differences</a> especially <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-01001-014">in regions</a> associated with emotions, inhibition of behaviour and problem solving. They also appear to have differences associated with their <a href="https://www.psypost.org/psychopathic-women-exhibit-low-cardiac-defense-responses-study-finds/">nervous system</a>, including a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301051123001345?via%3Dihub">reduced heart rate</a>. However, sociopathy and its antisocial behaviours are a product of someone’s social environment, and tends to <a href="https://www.aic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-05/19-1415-FinalReport.pdf">run in families</a>. These behaviours has been <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4801766/#:%7E:text=Childhood%20abuse%20is%20a%20risk,and%20psychopathic%20traits%20remain%20unclear">associated with</a> physical abuse and parental conflict. <h2>What are the consequences?</h2> Despite their fictional portrayals – such as Hannibal Lecter in Silence of the Lambs or Villanelle in the TV series <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7016936/">Killing Eve</a> – <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/making-evil/201902/what-we-get-wrong-about-psychopaths#:%7E:text=Most%20psychopaths%20are%20not%20offenders,extreme%20violence%20or%20serial%20killing.">not all people</a> with psychopathy or sociopathy traits are serial killers or are physically violent. But psychopathy <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/">predicts</a> a wide range of harmful behaviours. In the criminal justice system, psychopathy is strongly linked with re-offending, particularly of a violent nature. In the general population, psychopathy is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0160252709000028?casa_token=5lSd35qRO7oAAAAA:CTu-KkDXxsoYEPvpceItex9go1Fn_YlfBQSW9O9_MwNEX6NxlZ23GRcWnS5YYV_kAig24E4Ahdj7">associated with</a> drug dependence, homelessness, and other personality disorders. Some research even showed psychopathy predicted <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8250605/">failure to follow</a> COVID restrictions. But sociopathy is less established as a key risk factor in identifying people at heightened risk of harm to others. And sociopathy is not a reliable indicator of future antisocial behaviour. <h2>In a nutshell</h2> Neither psychopathy nor sociopathy are classed as mental disorders in formal psychiatric diagnostic manuals. They are both personality traits that relate to antisocial behaviours and are associated with certain interpersonal, emotional and lifestyle characteristics. Psychopathy is thought to have genetic, biological and psychological bases that places someone at greater risk of violating other people’s rights. But sociopathy is less clearly defined and its antisocial behaviours are the product of someone’s social environment. Of the two, psychopathy has the greatest use in identifying someone who is most likely to cause damage to others.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226714/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/bruce-watt-1486350">Bruce Watt</a>, Associate Professor in Psychology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/katarina-fritzon-402205">Katarina Fritzon</a>, Associate Professor of Psychology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-difference-between-a-psychopath-and-a-sociopath-less-than-you-might-think-226714">original article</a>.

Mind

Can a 10-year-old be responsible for a crime? Here’s what brain science tells us

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/susan-m-sawyer-109573">Susan M. Sawyer</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/nandi-vijayakumar-1644262">Nandi Vijayakumar</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/deakin-university-757">Deakin University</a> The age a child can be arrested, charged and jailed in Australia is back in the spotlight. Last year, the Northern Territory became the first jurisdiction to raise the age of criminal responsibility from ten to 12. Now its new, tough-on-crime government has pledged to <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/incoming-chief-minister-says-age-of-criminal-responsibility-to-be-lowered-to-10-years-old/a1xm9jy9c">return it to ten</a>. It comes after Victoria <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-08-13/victoria-youth-justice-reform-criminal-age/104217160">walked back</a> its earlier commitment to raise the age to 14, settling instead on 12. But the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child says 14 should be the absolute <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/general-comments-and-recommendations/general-comment-no-24-2019-childrens-rights-child">minimum</a>. It raised this age from its earlier recommendation (in 2007) of 12, citing a decade of new research into child and adolescent development. So what does the science say? What happens to the brain between ten and 14? And how much can those under 14 understand the consequences of their actions? <h2>Who is an adolescent?</h2> Our research shows adolescence is a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30169257/">critical period</a> for development. It’s the time children’s experiences and explorations shape how they develop cognitive skills (including critical thinking and decision making), as well as social and emotional skills (including moral reasoning). Adolescence also lasts longer than we tend to think. Important brain development begins during late childhood, around eight to nine years. Intense changes then follow during early adolescence (ages ten to 14). But these changes continue well into the twenties, and full cognitive and emotional maturity is not usually reached until around age 24. However, everyone’s brain matures at a different rate. That means there is no definitive age we can say humans reach “adult” levels of cognitive maturity. What we do know is the period of early adolescence is critical. <h2>What does puberty do to the brain?</h2> Puberty is a defining feature of early adolescence. Most of us are familiar with the changes that occur to the body and reproductive systems. But the increase in puberty hormones, such as testosterone and oestrogen, also trigger changes to the brain. These hormones <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306453017313252?via%3Dihub">increase most sharply</a> between ten and 15 years of age, although gradual changes continue into the early twenties. Puberty hormones change the structures in the brain which process emotions, including the amygdala (which encodes fear and stress) and ventral striatum (involved in reward and motivation). This makes adolescents particularly reactive to emotional rewards and threats. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2019.04.024">Our research</a> has shown the brain’s sensitivity to emotions increases throughout early adolescence until around 14 or 15 years old. At the same time, changes in puberty have <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000172">been linked</a> to increased sensation seeking and impulsive behaviours during early adolescence. This context is crucial when we discuss the behaviour of children in the ten to 14 age range. The way their brains change during this period makes them more sensitive and responsive to emotions, and more likely to be seeking experiences that are new and intense. <h2>How do adolescents make decisions?</h2> The emotional context of puberty influences how younger adolescents make decisions and understand their consequences. Decision making relies on several basic cognitive functions, including the brain’s flexibility, memory and ability to control impulses. These cognitive abilities – which together help us consider the consequences of our actions – undergo some of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1741-13.2013">steepest development</a> between ages ten and 14. By age 15, the ability to make complex decisions has usually <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000315">reached adult maturity</a>. But adolescents at this age remain highly susceptible to emotions. So while their brain may be equipped to make a complex decision, their ability to think through the consequences, weighing up costs and benefits, can be clouded by emotional situations. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12085">research has shown</a> 13-14 year-olds were more distracted from completing a task and less able to control their behaviour when they viewed images that made them feel negative emotions. The social world of teenagers also has a significant impact on how they make decisions – especially in early adolescence. One study found that while older adolescents (aged 15-18) are more influenced by what adults think when weighing up risk, adolescents aged 12-14 <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0956797615569578">look to other teenagers</a>. Experiments <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431616648453">have also shown</a> adolescents aged 12-15 make riskier decisions when they are with peers than by themselves. Their brain responses also suggest they experience a greater sense of reward in taking those risks <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsy071">with peers</a>. <h2>How do teens understand the consequences of their actions?</h2> The concept of <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp2122/Quick_Guides/MinimumAgeCriminalResponsibility">criminal responsibility</a> is based on whether a person is able to understand their action and know whether it is wrong. Moral reasoning – how people think about right and wrong – depends on the ability to understand another person’s mental state and adopt their perspective. These skills are in development <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2020.09.012">across adolescence</a>. Research suggests it may take more effort for adolescent brains to process <a href="https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2009.21121">“social” emotions</a> such as guilt and embarrassment, compared to adults. This is similar when they make <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2014.933714">moral judgements</a>. This evidence suggests teenage brains may have to work harder when considering other people’s intentions and desires. Young adolescents have the cognitive ability to appreciate they made a bad decision, but it is more mentally demanding. And social rewards, emotions and the chance to experience something new all have a strong bearing on their decisions and actions in the moment — possibly more than whether it is right or wrong. <h2>Early adolescence is critical for the brain</h2> There are also a number of reasons adolescent brains may develop differently. This includes various forms of neurodisability such as acquired brain injury, fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and intellectual disability, as well as exposure to trauma. Teenagers with neurodevelopmental disorders will likely cope differently with decision making, social pressure, impulse control and risk assessment, and face <a href="https://www.mcri.edu.au/images/research/strategic-collaborations/Flagships/Neurodevelopment/Neurodevelopment_Flagship_Brochure.pdf">extra difficulties</a>. Across the world, they are <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpub/article/PIIS2468-2667(19)30217-8/fulltext">disproportionately incarcerated</a>. In Australia, Indigenous children and adolescents are incarcerated <a href="https://www.indigenoushpf.gov.au/measures/2-11-contact-with-the-criminal-justice-system#:%7E:text=On%20an%20average%20day%20in%202021%E2%80%9322%2C%20there%20were%3A,AIHW%202023d%3A%20Table%20S76a">in greater numbers</a> than their non-Indigenous peers. Each child matures differently, and some face extra challenges. But for every person, the period between ten and 14 is critical for developing the cognitive, social and emotional skills they’ll carry through the rest of their life.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/237552/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/susan-m-sawyer-109573">Susan M. Sawyer</a>, Professor of Adolescent Health The University of Melbourne; Director, Royal Children's Hospital Centre for Adolescent Health, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/nandi-vijayakumar-1644262">Nandi Vijayakumar</a>, Research Fellow, School of Psychology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/deakin-university-757">Deakin University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-a-10-year-old-be-responsible-for-a-crime-heres-what-brain-science-tells-us-237552">original article</a>.

Mind

How to know when it’s time to start therapy

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/simon-sherry-557487">Simon Sherry</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/dalhousie-university-1329">Dalhousie University</a> People go to therapy for many reasons. A challenging life event, trauma, volatile emotions, relationship problems, poor mental health: all can prompt someone to seek it out. Whatever the reason, it can be difficult to decide when and if therapy is right for you. If you’re reading this, now’s probably the right time. If you’re considering therapy, something is likely bothering you and you want help. Consider this your sign to reach out. If you’re still unsure, keep reading. <h2>Why therapy?</h2> Sometimes, our minds work against us. Therapy can help you understand why you think, feel, or act how you do and give you the skills you need to think, feel, or act in healthier ways. This includes helping you: <ul> <li> identify, understand, and overcome internal obstacles </li> <li> identify and challenge thought patterns and beliefs that are holding you back </li> <li> improve your mental health </li> <li> cope with mental illness </li> <li> and create lasting changes to your thoughts and behaviour that can improve all areas of your life. </li> </ul> <h2>When your mental health is suffering</h2> Everyone experiences negative emotions in difficult situations — like sadness after a breakup or anxiety before a big life event. But when do these feelings become problematic? When you have <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/about-mental-health.html">poor mental health</a>. Mental health and mental illness <a href="https://cmha.ca/news/mental-health-what-is-it-really/">are distinct</a>, but related, concepts. <a href="https://dictionary.apa.org/mental-health">Mental health</a> refers to the inner resources you have to handle life’s ups and downs. You have good mental health if you enjoy life; feel connected to others; cope well with stress; and have a sense of purpose, a sense of self and strong relationships. If you have poor mental health, it can be hard to adapt to changes like a breakup, move, loss or parenthood. Therapy can help you improve your mental health, develop resilience and maintain a state of well-being. <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/about-mental-illness.html">Mental illness</a> refers to distressing disturbances in thoughts, feelings and perceptions that interfere with daily life. There are <a href="https://cmha.ca/brochure/mental-illnesses/">different kinds</a> of mental illness, each characterized by different thoughts, feelings and behaviours. Mental illness may feel like: <ul> <li> Hopelessness — feeling stuck, unmotivated or helpless. </li> <li> Apathy — feeling uninterested in things that used to give you satisfaction or pleasure. </li> <li> Anger — feeling rage or resentment, especially frequently or disproportionately. </li> <li> Stress — feeling overwhelmed, unable to cope, unwilling to rest or like everything is hard (even if you know it shouldn’t be). </li> <li> Guilt — feeling ashamed, undeserving of good things or deserving of bad things. </li> <li> Anxiety — worrying about what has or might happen or having disturbing intrusive thoughts. </li> <li> Exhaustion — sleeping more than usual, having difficulty getting out of bed or lacking energy during the day. </li> <li> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30136-X">Insomnia</a> — having difficulty falling or staying asleep. </li> </ul> Both poor mental health and mental illness are equally good reasons to seek therapy. Ask yourself: Am I having trouble dealing with life challenges? If the answer is yes, therapy might be for you. People often cope with the feelings listed above in different ways. <a href="https://www.nami.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/NAMI-Warning-Signs-FINAL.pdf">Some gain or lose a lot of weight</a>. Others might seek out or do things that are unhealthy for them, like entering a toxic relationship, engaging in dangerous activities, developing an unhealthy habit or procrastinating. Others might isolate themselves from friends and family, or catastrophize and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22468242">ruminate on negative experiences</a>. However it manifests, <a href="https://namica.org/what-is-mental-illness/">mental illness often gets worse if left untreated</a>. It can have very real impacts on your life, potentially leading to unemployment, broken relationships, poor physical health, substance abuse, homelessness, incarceration or even suicide. Ask yourself: Is mental illness negatively affecting my functioning or well-being? If the answer is yes, therapy might be for you. <h2>What if therapy didn’t work before?</h2> Many people put off going to therapy because they don’t think their problems are serious enough, but you don’t need a big, deep reason to start therapy. Some people go to therapy to learn more about themselves. Some, to improve their skills, relationships or productivity. Others go for help reaching their goals or because they aren’t happy and don’t know why. Any of these are good reasons to start therapy, even if they don’t seem like “problems” in a traditional sense. You can go to therapy just because there’s something about yourself or your life you’d like to explore. Therapy is a process. Whether psychotherapy works for you depends on many factors, such as time, effort and your psychologist. There’s no quick fix for mental health. Symptoms can take weeks, months or even years to improve. Although this can be frustrating or disheartening, for therapy to work, you have to give it time. Sometimes people go to therapy, but are skeptical or resistant. Therapy won’t work if you aren’t invested in it. For therapy to work, you have to put in the work. Therapy is a vulnerable process, so finding a psychologist you trust and relate well with is crucial. Psychologists also have different specialities and approaches. For therapy to work, you have to find the right therapist for you. <h2>What if I’m not ready?</h2> There are several reasons why now might not be the right time for you to start therapy. Maybe therapy isn’t in the budget. Maybe you have other priorities. Maybe you’re scared to relive trauma. That’s okay. Therapy can be expensive and difficult, but also rewarding. Just because now isn’t a good time, doesn’t mean there will never be a good time. If you don’t want to start therapy, don’t. However, it can be helpful to determine why you don’t want to. Maybe you don’t want to go to therapy because you’re worried what others might think. If so, remember that people are often <a href="https://www.camh.ca/en/driving-change/the-crisis-is-real/mental-health-statistics">more understanding</a> than we anticipate, and there is nothing wrong with investing in your health or happiness. If you’re struggling with your mental health, know that you’re not alone. Mental health issues are common. Having them or attending therapy does not mean there is something “wrong” with you. Mental illness affects <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders">970 million people</a> and is the leading cause of disability worldwide. <a href="https://www.camh.ca/en/driving-change/the-crisis-is-real/mental-health-statistics">One in five</a> <a href="https://www.nami.org/about-mental-illness/mental-health-by-the-numbers/">adults</a> and more than <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.5051">one in 10 children and youths</a> have mental illness. About <a href="https://health-infobase.canada.ca/datalab/mental-illness-blog.html">15 per cent of Canadians</a> use mental health services each year. Don’t let stigma keep you from bettering your life and well-being. Everyone deserves to live a healthy, fulfilling life. Therapy can help you get there.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/234078/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/simon-sherry-557487">Simon Sherry</a>, Clinical Psychologist and Professor in the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/dalhousie-university-1329">Dalhousie University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-know-when-its-time-to-start-therapy-234078">original article</a>.

Mind

Boeing Starliner astronauts: what six months stuck in space may do to their perception of time

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/ruth-ogden-1182467">Ruth Ogden</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/liverpool-john-moores-university-1319">Liverpool John Moores University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/daniel-eduardo-vigo-1631723">Daniel Eduardo Vigo</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/pontificia-universidad-catolica-de-argentina-5531">Pontificia Universidad Católica de Argentina</a> Two astronauts marooned in space may sound like the plot of a Hollywood blockbuster, but for two <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">Nasa</a> crew members, it is now a reality. Commander Barry Wilmore and pilot Sunita Williams are currently in limbo on the International Space Station (ISS). They arrived in the Boeing Starliner spacecraft – the first test of the spaceship with astronauts. Wilmore and Williams were supposed to stay on the ISS for around eight days and return on the same spacecraft. But there is now debate about the safety of Starliner after it experienced <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c6pp29gdwe6o">helium leaks and thruster problems</a> on its way to the ISS. In coming days, Nasa and Boeing may decide to clear Starliner to carry the astronauts back to Earth. This means their stay might not last too much longer. But if officials decide against Starliner, the astronauts face waiting an <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/update-nasa-boeing-to-stream-flight-test-mission-briefing-on-nasa/">additional six months in orbit</a> before returning. So how do astronauts cope with a potential six-month wait for a lift home? <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0022249685900203">Waiting for things is difficult</a> at the best of times. Under normal circumstances, it is <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2043808718778982">frustrating, stressful and anxiety-provoking</a>. But in extreme situations, with high stakes, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2011.05638.x?casa_token=jC_hT4wqbuIAAAAA%3AGTrJPmd496aDTdirdwYi7CvLK8Q1g_oR-Em2E3EpDP0AwRCs2ko13Jpqui15BlkPiAx7MMRqA0MC">waiting can be purgatory</a>. Part of the reason that waiting is difficult is that it distorts our sense of time. Think of last time you were waiting for a delayed train, test results or a text from a potential new partner. Did it fly by or drag? For most people, time spent waiting crawls at a glacial pace. As a result, delays and periods of anticipation often feel much longer than they actually are. Waiting slows our perception of time, because it changes the amount of time that we spend <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23324610?casa_token=KmtJWWmtHwQAAAAA%3AN_CUdtNakK46j4ItZaH_f__QcIGOjMnasX1NeMTRFH5YPpcmYx1JpigTfTb1bPYi5Fcus-IhtzDX0Jsz3xpqZRMDUxg0RWYhSr87V-zXz_pqS0zM&seq=2">thinking about time</a>. During normal daily life we often ignore time; our brains have a limited capacity. If time isn’t important, we simply don’t think about it, and this helps it to pass quickly. When we are waiting, our desire to know when the wait is over increases how much we think about time. This “clock watching” can make the minutes and hours feel like they are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-2626(90)90026-K">passing at a snail’s pace</a>. Stress, discomfort and pain exacerbate this effect, meaning that waiting in difficult situations <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ejp.2211">can seem even longer</a>. Waiting also slows our perception of time because it what we do and how we feel. Normal life is busy and full of ever-changing activities and interactions. The sudden need to wait halts the flow of life, often leaving us with nothing else to do, thus increasing levels of boredom and frustration. In general, time filled with activity <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-2626(90)90026-K">passes more quickly</a>. We all got a taste of this during <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235871">COVID lockdowns</a>. When we were stuck inside unable to see friends and engage in normal daily activities, the loss of routine and distractions caused time to drag for many. For the astronauts stuck on the ISS, anxiety about when they will return, limited opportunities for activities and fewer opportunities to contact friends and families combine to make their wait to return home feel significantly longer than six months – if it should come to that. However, as academics who research the effects of time on human psychology and biology, our ongoing work with crew members at research stations in Antarctica aims to shed light on whether waiting in extreme environments is different to waiting during normal daily life. <h2>A year in Antarctica</h2> While being stuck for six months on the ISS may sound like many people’s worst nightmare, it is not uncommon for scientists to spend long periods isolated and confined in extreme environments. Every year, organisations such as the Instituto Antártico Argentino (which uses the Belgrano II Antarctic station), the French Polar Institute and the Italian Antarctic Programme, in cooperation with the European Space Agency (which all use Antarctica’s Concordia station), send crews of people for up to 16 months to conduct research on the frozen continent. During the March to October <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/">polar winter</a>, teams spend six months in near darkness – and from May to August, in complete darkness – facing outside temperatures of up to -60C, wind speeds of 160 km/h (100 mph) and storms which prevent almost all outdoor activity. Limited internet coverage can also prevent constant communication with the outside world. For the last year, we have researched how life in Antarctica influences people’s experience of time. Each month, we asked crew members how time felt like it was passing in comparison to before their mission. Trapped on base, with limited contact with the outside world, you might expect time to drag. However, our results suggest the opposite may be true. Analysis of crew members’ experiences indicated that being constantly busy with complex tasks such as scientific research helped time to pass swiftly, according to 80% of crew responses. Only 3% of responses indicated that time actually dragged, and these reports occurred when nights were long and there was little to do. These experiences may provide hope for those stuck on the ISS. Like life on an Antarctic station, these Nasa astronauts have a busy and mentally demanding existence. These factors may help time to pass quickly. However, a key factor of their wait may be their ability to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2043808718778982">tolerate the uncertainty</a> of when they will return. Wilmore and Williams will spend their time in a space equivalent to the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-facts-and-figures/">inside a Boeing 747</a> plane. But better information about “when” things will happen and “why” delays are being incurred can help people to tolerate waiting and reduce its impact on their wellbeing.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/236546/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/ruth-ogden-1182467">Ruth Ogden</a>, Professor of the Psychology of Time, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/liverpool-john-moores-university-1319">Liverpool John Moores University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/daniel-eduardo-vigo-1631723">Daniel Eduardo Vigo</a>, Senior Researcher in Chronobiology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/pontificia-universidad-catolica-de-argentina-5531">Pontificia Universidad Católica de Argentina</a> Image credits: NASA This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/boeing-starliner-astronauts-what-six-months-stuck-in-space-may-do-to-their-perception-of-time-236546">original article</a>.

Mind

4 things ancient Greeks and Romans got right about mental health

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/konstantine-panegyres-1528527">Konstantine Panegyres</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> According to the World Health Organization, about <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression">280 million people</a> worldwide have depression and about <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/mental-health#tab=tab_2">one billion</a> have a mental health problem of any kind. People living in the ancient world also had mental health problems. So, how did they deal with them? As we’ll see, some of their insights about mental health are still relevant today, even though we might question some of their methods. <h2>1. Our mental state is important</h2> Mental health problems such as depression were familiar to people in the ancient world. Homer, the poet famous for the Iliad and Odyssey who lived around the eighth century BC, apparently <a href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL496/2003/volume.xml">died</a> after wasting away from depression. Already in the late fifth century BC, ancient Greek doctors recognised that our health partly depends on the state of our thoughts. In the Epidemics, a medical text written in around 400BC, an anonymous doctor <a href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL477/1994/volume.xml">wrote</a> that our habits about our thinking (as well as our lifestyle, clothing and housing, physical activity and sex) are the main determinants of our health. <h2>2. Mental health problems can make us ill</h2> Also writing in the Epidemics, an anonymous doctor <a href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL477/1994/volume.xml">described</a> one of his patients, Parmeniscus, whose mental state became so bad he grew delirious, and eventually could not speak. He stayed in bed for 14 days before he was cured. We’re not told how. Later, the famous doctor <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Galen">Galen of Pergamum</a> (129-216AD) <a href="https://dfg-viewer.de/show?tx_dlf%5Bdouble%5D=0&tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=http%3A%2F%2Fcmg.bbaw.de%2Fepubl%2Fonline%2Fmets%2Fsuppl_or_05_03.xml&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=1390&cHash=a0a715a587fa4e89a8839ccb310b0734">observed</a> that people often become sick because of a bad mental state: <blockquote> It may be that under certain circumstances ‘thinking’ is one of the causes that bring about health or disease because people who get angry about everything and become confused, distressed and frightened for the slightest reason often fall ill for this reason and have a hard time getting over these illnesses. </blockquote> Galen also described some of his patients who suffered with their mental health, including some who became seriously ill and died. <a href="https://dfg-viewer.de/show?tx_dlf%5Bdouble%5D=0&tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=http%3A%2F%2Fcmg.bbaw.de%2Fepubl%2Fonline%2Fmets%2Fsuppl_or_05_03.xml&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=1392&cHash=c93bf32c31975103b100e918bee893d9">One man</a> had lost money: <blockquote> He developed a fever that stayed with him for a long time. In his sleep he scolded himself for his loss, regretted it and was agitated until he woke up. While he was awake he continued to waste away from grief. He then became delirious and developed brain fever. He finally fell into a delirium that was obvious from what he said, and he remained in this state until he died. </blockquote> <h2>3. Mental illness can be prevented and treated</h2> In the ancient world, people had many different ways to prevent or treat mental illness. The philosopher Aristippus, who lived in the fifth century BC, used to advise people <a href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL486/1997/volume.xml">to focus on the present</a> to avoid mental disturbance: <blockquote> concentrate one’s mind on the day, and indeed on that part of the day in which one is acting or thinking. Only the present belongs to us, not the past nor what is anticipated. The former has ceased to exist, and it is uncertain if the latter will exist. </blockquote> The philosopher Clinias, who lived in the fourth century BC, <a href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL486/1997/volume.xml">said</a> that whenever he realised he was becoming angry, he would go and play music on his lyre to calm himself. Doctors had their own approaches to dealing with mental health problems. Many <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=KPHaAAAAMAAJ&q=caelius+aurelianus+drabkin+on+acute+diseases&dq=caelius+aurelianus+drabkin+on+acute+diseases&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjpqszXwuSGAxUjamwGHS1yCuoQ6AF6BAgHEAI">recommended</a> patients change their lifestyles to adjust their mental states. They advised people to take up a new regime of exercise, adopt a different diet, go travelling by sea, listen to the lectures of philosophers, play games (such as draughts/checkers), and do mental exercises equivalent to the modern crossword or sudoku. For instance, the physician Caelius Aurelianus (fifth century AD) <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=KPHaAAAAMAAJ&q=caelius+aurelianus+drabkin+on+acute+diseases&dq=caelius+aurelianus+drabkin+on+acute+diseases&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjpqszXwuSGAxUjamwGHS1yCuoQ6AF6BAgHEAI">thought</a> patients suffering from insanity could benefit from a varied diet including fruit and mild wine. Doctors also advised people to take plant-based medications. For example, the herb <a href="https://www.psychiatriki-journal.gr/documents/psychiatry/30.1-EN-2019-58.pdf">hellebore</a> was given to people suffering from paranoia. However, ancient doctors recognised that hellebore could be dangerous as it sometimes induced toxic spasms, killing patients. Other doctors, such as Galen, had a slightly different view. He believed mental problems were caused by some idea that had taken hold of the mind. He believed mental problems could be cured if this idea was removed from the mind and <a href="https://dfg-viewer.de/show?tx_dlf%5Bdouble%5D=0&tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=http%3A%2F%2Fcmg.bbaw.de%2Fepubl%2Fonline%2Fmets%2Fsuppl_or_05_03.xml&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=1396&cHash=1697e4b73dd653092cd8398749f1989f">wrote</a>: <blockquote> a person whose illness is caused by thinking is only cured by taking care of the false idea that has taken over his mind, not by foods, drinks, [clothing, housing], baths, walking and other such (measures). </blockquote> Galen <a href="https://dfg-viewer.de/show?id=9&tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=http%3A%2F%2Fcmg.bbaw.de%2Fepubl%2Fonline%2Fmets%2Fsuppl_or_05_03.xml&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=1418">thought</a> it was best to deflect his patients’ thoughts away from these false ideas by putting new ideas and emotions in their minds: <blockquote> I put fear of losing money, political intrigue, drinking poison or other such things in the hearts of others to deflect their thoughts to these things […] In others one should arouse indignation about an injustice, love of rivalry, and the desire to beat others depending on each person’s interest. </blockquote> <h2>4. Addressing mental health needs effort</h2> Generally speaking, the ancients believed keeping our mental state healthy required effort. If we were anxious or angry or despondent, then we needed to do something that brought us the opposite of those emotions. This can be achieved, they thought, by doing some activity that directly countered the emotions we are experiencing. For example, Caelius Aurelianus <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=KPHaAAAAMAAJ&q=caelius+aurelianus+drabkin+on+acute+diseases&dq=caelius+aurelianus+drabkin+on+acute+diseases&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjpqszXwuSGAxUjamwGHS1yCuoQ6AF6BAgHEAI">said</a> people suffering from depression should do activities that caused them to laugh and be happy, such as going to see a comedy at the theatre. However, the ancients did not believe any single activity was enough to make our mental state become healthy. The important thing was to make a wholesale change to one’s way of living and thinking. When it comes to experiencing mental health problems, we clearly have a lot in common with our ancient ancestors. Much of what they said seems as relevant now as it did 2,000 years ago, even if we use different methods and medicines today. <hr /> If this article has raised issues for you, or if you’re concerned about someone you know, call Lifeline on 13 11 14.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/232824/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/konstantine-panegyres-1528527">Konstantine Panegyres</a>, McKenzie Postdoctoral Fellow, researching Greco-Roman antiquity, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/4-things-ancient-greeks-and-romans-got-right-about-mental-health-232824">original article</a>.

Mind

Is it OK to lie to someone with dementia?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/steve-macfarlane-4722">Steve Macfarlane</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/monash-university-1065">Monash University</a> There was disagreement on social media recently after a story <a href="https://x.com/HammondCare/status/1817738312372691046">was published</a> about an aged care provider creating “fake-away” burgers that mimicked those from a fast-food chain, to a resident living with dementia. The man had such strict food preferences he was <a href="https://www.hammond.com.au/resource-hub/smart-thinking-about-hamburgers-improved-life-for-one-man-living-with-severe-dementia-symptoms?utm_content=301880186&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter&hss_channel=tw-252995959">refusing to eat</a> anything at meals except a burger from the franchise. This dementia symptom risks malnutrition and social isolation. But <a href="https://helloleaders.com.au/article/the-dementia-debate-ignited-by-a-whopper-burger">critics</a> of the fake burger approach labelled it trickery and deception of a vulnerable person with cognitive impairment. Dementia is an illness that <a href="https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/10_signs">progressively robs us of memories</a>. Although it has many forms, it is typical for short-term recall – the memory of something that happened in recent hours or days – to be lost first. As the illness progresses, people may come to increasingly “live in the past”, as distant recall gradually becomes the only memories accessible to the person. So a person in the middle or later stages of the disease may relate to the world as it once was, not how it is today. This can make ethical care very challenging. <h2>Is it wrong to lie?</h2> Ethical approaches <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/deontological-ethics">classically</a> hold that specific actions are moral certainties, regardless of the consequences. In line with this moral absolutism, it is always wrong to lie. But this ethical approach would require an elderly woman with dementia who continually approaches care staff looking for their long-deceased spouse to be informed their husband has passed – the objective truth. Distress is the likely outcome, possibly accompanied by behavioural disturbance that could endanger the person or others. The person’s memory has regressed to a point earlier in their life, when their partner was still alive. To inform such a person of the death of their spouse, however gently, is to traumatise them. And with the memory of what they have just been told likely to quickly fade, and the questioning may resume soon after. If the truth is offered again, the cycle of re-traumatisation continues. <h2>A different approach</h2> Most laws are examples of absolutist ethics. One must obey the law at all times. Driving above the speed limit is likely to result in punishment regardless of whether one is in a hurry to pick their child up from kindergarten or not. Pragmatic ethics <a href="https://philonotes.com/2022/05/pragmatic-ethics-meaning-nature-and-dynamics#google_vignette">rejects</a> the notion certain acts are always morally right or wrong. Instead, acts are evaluated in terms of their “usefulness” and social benefit, humanity, compassion or intent. The <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/topics/aged-care/about-aged-care/aged-care-laws-in-australia#aged-care-act">Aged Care Act</a> is a set of laws intended to guide the actions of aged care providers. It says, for example, <a href="https://www.agedcarequality.gov.au/resource-library/psychotropic-medications-used-australia-information-aged-care">psychotropic drugs</a> (medications that affect mind and mood) should be the “last resort” in managing the behaviours and psychological symptoms of dementia. Instead, “best practice” involves preventing behaviour before it occurs. If one can reasonably foresee a caregiver action is likely to result in behavioural disturbance, it flies in the face of best practice. <h2>What to say when you can’t avoid a lie?</h2> What then, becomes the best response when approached by the lady looking for her husband? Gentle inquiries may help uncover an underlying emotional need, and point caregivers in the right direction to meet that need. Perhaps she is feeling lonely or anxious and has become focused on her husband’s whereabouts? A skilled caregiver might tailor their response, connect with her, perhaps reminisce, and providing a sense of comfort in the process. This approach aligns with <a href="https://www.dementia.org.au/news/it-ever-okay-lie-someone-living-dementia">Dementia Australia guidance</a> that carers or loved ones can use four prompts in such scenarios: <ul> <li> acknowledge concern (“I can tell you’d like him to be here.”) </li> <li> suggest an alternative (“He can’t visit right now.”) </li> <li> provide reassurance (“I’m here and lots of people care about you.”) </li> <li> redirect focus (“Perhaps a walk outside or a cup of tea?”) </li> </ul> These things may or may not work. So, in the face of repeated questions and escalating distress, a mistruth, such as “Don’t worry, he’ll be back soon,” may be the most humane response in the circumstances. <h2>Different realities</h2> It is often said you can never win an argument with a person living with dementia. A lot of time, different realities are being discussed. So, providing someone who has dementia with a “pretend” burger may well satisfy their preferences, bring joy, mitigate the risk of malnutrition, improve social engagement, and prevent a behavioural disturbance without the use of medication. This seems like the correct approach in ethical terms. On occasion, the end justifies the means.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/236229/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/steve-macfarlane-4722">Steve Macfarlane</a>, Head of Clinical Services, Dementia Support Australia, & Associate Professor of Psychiatry, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/monash-university-1065">Monash University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-ok-to-lie-to-someone-with-dementia-236229">original article</a>.

Mind

Knitting helps Tom Daley switch off. Its mental health benefits are not just for Olympians

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michelle-oshea-457947">Michelle O'Shea</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/gabrielle-weidemann-91497">Gabrielle Weidemann</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a> Olympian Tom Daley is the <a href="https://www.teamgb.com/athlete/tom-daley/3y6lj3NwM4u2dORkh8DkXo#:%7E:text=Tom%20Daley's%20medals&text=Tom%20Daley%20was%20the%20first,Paris%20with%20a%20first%20silver.">most decorated diver</a> in Britain’s history. He is also an avid knitter. At the Paris 2024 Olympics Daley added a fifth medal to his collection – and caught the world’s attention knitting a bright blue “Paris 24” jumper while travelling to the games and in the stands. At the Tokyo Olympics, where Daley was first <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/jul/27/tom-daley-knits-a-tea-cosy-holder-to-keep-his-gold-medal-safe-from-scratches">spotted knitting</a>, he <a href="https://www.npr.org/2024/07/29/nx-s1-5055677/tom-daley-olympics-2024-diving-knitting">explained</a> its positive impact on his mental health. <blockquote> It just turned into my mindfulness, my meditation, my calm and my way to escape the stresses of everyday life and, in particular, going to an Olympics. </blockquote> The <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01612840.2024.2364228">mental health benefits of knitting</a> are well established. So why is someone famous like Daley knitting in public still so surprising? <h2>Knitting is gendered</h2> Knitting is usually associated with women – <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/02614367.2019.1579852">especially older women</a> – as a hobby done at home. In a <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.4276/030802213X13603244419077?casa_token=Y-MLTtrt_o4AAAAA:7c1Y6DSAd0XH19q0N-FBqqws68JFpgXYx5DACMMw24D3AuoqLkh0VVKMh7M6GNchmQpWSj1KR9tzCFw">large international survey</a> of knitting, 99% of respondents identified as female. But the history of yarn crafts and gender is more tangled. In Europe in the middle ages, <a href="https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/patterns/weaving/articles/nb82_knt.pdf">knitting guilds were exclusive</a> and reserved for men. They were part of a respected Europe-wide trade addressing a demand for knitted products that could not be satisfied by domestic workers alone. The <a href="https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/patterns/weaving/articles/nb82_knt.pdf">industrial revolution</a> made the production of clothed goods cheaper and faster than hand-knitting. Knitting and other needle crafts became a leisure activity for women, done in the private sphere of the home. World Wars I and II turned the spotlight back on knitting as a “<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-million-pairs-of-socks-knitting-for-victory-in-the-first-world-war-30149">patriotic duty</a>”, but it was still largely taken up by women. During COVID lockdowns, knitting saw another <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/02/well/family/pandemic-knitting-election-stress.html">resurgence</a>. But knitting still most often makes headlines when men – especially famous men like Daley or actor <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2013/01/ryan-gosling-hobby-knitting-interview">Ryan Gosling</a> – do it. Men who knit are often seen as <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-09-17/men-who-unpick-knitting-stereoptype/11516016">subverting</a> the stereotype it’s an activity for older women. <h2>Knitting the stress away</h2> Knitting can produce a sense of pride and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01612840.2024.2364228">accomplishment</a>. But for an elite sportsperson like Daley – whose accomplishments already include four gold medals and one silver – its benefits lie elsewhere. Olympics-level sport relies on perfect scores and world records. When it comes to knitting, many of the mental health benefits are associated with the process, rather than the end result. Daley <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wwXGOki--c">says</a> knitting is the “one thing” that allows him to switch off completely, describing it as “my therapy”. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6wwXGOki--c?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></figure> The Olympian says he could <blockquote> knit for hours on end, honestly. There’s something that’s so satisfying to me about just having that rhythm and that little “click-clack” of the knitting needles. There is not a day that goes by where I don’t knit. </blockquote> Knitting can create a “flow” state through rhythmic, repetitive movements of the yarn and needle. Flow offers us a <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-32525-014">balance</a> between challenge, accessibility and a sense of control. It’s been shown to have benefits relieving stress in high-pressure jobs beyond elite sport. Among surgeons, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37150722/">knitting has been found</a> to improve wellbeing as well as manual dexterity, crucial to their role. For other health professionals – including oncology nurses and mental health workers – knitting has <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01612840.2024.2364228">helped to</a> reduce “<a href="https://cjon.ons.org/cjon/20/1/impact-knitting-intervention-compassion-fatigue-oncology-nurses">compassion fatigue</a>” and burnout. Participants described the soothing noise of their knitting needles. They developed and strengthened team bonds through collective knitting practices. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/dTTJjD_q2Ik?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>A Swiss psychiatrist says for those with trauma, knitting yarn can be like “knitting the two halves” of the brain “back together”.</figcaption></figure> <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1062001/full">Another study</a> showed knitting in primary school may boost children’s executive function. That includes the ability to pay attention, remember relevant details and block out distractions. As a regular creative practice, it has also been <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01612840.2024.2364228#d1e1860">used in the treatment</a> of grief, depression and subduing intrusive thoughts, as well countering chronic pain and cognitive decline. <h2>Knitting is a community</h2> The <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.4276/030802213X13603244419077">evidence</a> for the benefits of knitting is often based on self-reporting. These studies tend to produce consistent results and involve large population samples. This may point to another benefit of knitting: its social aspect. Knitting and other yarn crafts can be done alone, and usually require simple materials. But they also provide a chance to socialise by bringing people together around a common interest, which can help <a href="https://intellectdiscover.com/content/journals/10.1386/crre.7.1.11_1">reduce loneliness</a>. The free needle craft database and social network Ravelry contains <a href="https://blog.ravelry.com/2022-community-stats/">more than one million</a> patterns, contributed by users. “Yarn bombing” projects aim to <a href="https://www.artsnw.com.au/the-yarn-bombing-project">engage the community</a> and beautify public places by covering objects such as benches and stop signs with wool. The interest in Daley’s knitting online videos have formed a community of their own. In them he shows the process of making the jumper, not just the finished product. That includes where he “<a href="https://www.instagram.com/tomdaley/reel/C-LRgGYtbv3/?hl=en">went wrong</a>” and had to unwind his work. His pride in the finished product – a little bit wonky, but “<a href="https://www.instagram.com/madewithlovebytomdaley/?hl=en">made with love</a>” – can be a refreshing antidote to the flawless achievements often on display at the Olympics.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/236051/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michelle-oshea-457947">Michelle O'Shea</a>, Senior Lecturer, School of Business, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/gabrielle-weidemann-91497">Gabrielle Weidemann</a>, Associate Professor in Psychological Science, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a> Image credits: Instagram This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/knitting-helps-tom-daley-switch-off-its-mental-health-benefits-are-not-just-for-olympians-236051">original article</a>. </div>

Mind

Despair after four years of pressure: how do Olympians deal with disappointment?

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/christopher-mesagno-1252903">Christopher Mesagno</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/victoria-university-1175">Victoria University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/courtney-c-walton-1236295">Courtney C Walton</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> Australia’s soccer team entered Paris with high hopes of notching their first Olympic medal but those aspirations came crashing down with <a href="https://olympics.com/en/news/paris-2024-olympics-australia-vs-usa-football-women-group-match-3">defeat to the United States</a>. Even without star striker Sam Kerr, the Matildas – who enjoyed <a href="https://theconversation.com/connection-camaraderie-and-belonging-why-the-matildas-could-be-making-you-a-sports-fan-for-the-very-first-time-211526">a famous run</a> to finish fourth at the 2023 FIFA World Cup – were considered medal fancies but couldn’t progress past the group stage. It was a devastating loss – but how do these athletes (and others who don’t achieve their goals in Paris) rebound from the disappointment? <h2>The pressure of performing</h2> Every four years, <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/news/olympic-games-tokyo-2020-watched-by-more-than-3-billion-people">billions of viewers</a> around the world unite in awe of the skill and perseverance of Olympians and Paralympians. The athletes fortunate enough to compete in Paris 2024 will have done their best to put years of dedicated preparation into their performances. Many will have performed well and some achieved their goal of claiming a medal. Others, though, will finish the games with the feeling they did not fully realise their potential when it counted most. This leaves many athletes finishing the games with crushing disappointment. Famously, legendary swimmer (and now retired) Cate Campbell experienced this after her results at the Rio Olympics, which led to awful abuse and <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-08-31/olympian-cate-campbell-pens-letter-to-trolls-qld/10186576">harassment from a portion of the Australian public</a>. <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.685322/full">Research has shown</a> that many athletes report lower wellbeing after returning from the Olympics, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-you-get-home-its-really-lonely-new-research-shows-how-athletes-cope-with-post-olympic-life-163576">a sense of loneliness</a>, disappointment, and lack of direction. One of the reasons Olympic disappointment is so difficult is the deep ways in which an athlete’s identity gets wrapped up in their performance. That is, after years of being seen as “an athlete”, many begin to feel who they are as a person is dependent on how they perform. <h2>Athlete mental health and the role of self-criticism</h2> The mental health challenges faced by many athletes are now well recognised. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-020-01266-z">Research here in Australia</a> has found elite athletes show rates of mental ill-health at similar, if not greater, numbers than the general public. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e318287b870">Major performance disappointments</a> are well known contributors to this. Perhaps adding salt to the wound, one of the ways that elite athletes deal with disappointment is through self-criticism. This can include hostile ways of relating to oneself, which can lead to feelings of worthlessness and inferiority. Being self-critical is seen in many pursuits as the only way to get ahead, in an attempt to remove weakness and demand self-improvement. However, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165032718312254">research repeatedly shows</a> that most forms of self-criticism are associated with symptoms of mental ill-health. Moreover, harsh forms of internal judgement are <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0146167211410246">far less effective</a> at motivating growth and development than we might think. Athletes, like the rest of us, need to find another way to handle the inevitable setbacks and disappointments as they arise. <h2>A role for compassion</h2> A growing body of research and practice has suggested self-compassion might fit the bill. <a href="https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjc.12043">Compassion can be defined</a> as the sensitivity to suffering in self and others, with a commitment to try to reduce or prevent the suffering. It can be directed to others, received from others, or directed internally (self-compassion). For an athlete experiencing post-Olympic distress, showing self-compassion involves turning towards that distress rather than avoiding, judging, or criticising, and then identifying what they need to address it. This is harder than it may seem. One of the reasons self-compassion is so difficult is because it goes against many of the ways in which we have learned to self-motivate. Indeed, many athletes will report a common worry: that being self-compassionate might lower their standards. That’s just not the case. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0146167212445599">Research has shown</a> self-compassion can motivate self-improvement and athletes with higher levels of self-compassion show positive performance outcomes in sport. This is in contrast to self-criticism. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2022.2161064">Research has also shown</a> athletes who engage in more self-compassion tend to report a range of benefits including better mental health, and more helpful responses to disappointment. For this reason, there is a growing focus within clinical and sport psychology to help <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00050067.2022.2033952">develop self-compassion among athletes</a> as a resource for resilience. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/wmMXGipifKA?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>Two-time Olympian Laurence Halsted says self-compassion helped improve his performance.</figcaption></figure> <h2>Building self-compassion</h2> So, how can athletes (and the rest of us) build an ability to be self-compassionate? <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-be-kind-to-yourself-without-going-to-a-day-spa-223194">There are lots of ways</a>. A great start is using our inner wisdom to recognise how we would offer compassion to another person we care for, and then directing it inwards. Perhaps ask yourself: “how would I respond to a close friend in this situation?” Other strategies aim to trigger a soothing response in our bodies which can affect <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12671-017-0745-7">both our psychology and physiology</a>. For example we can actively change the tone of our inner thoughts <a href="https://soundcloud.com/jamesn-kirby/cft-posture-facial-expressions-and-voice-tone?si=89b19f29fc56462fad532c19bb44899b&utm_source=clipboard&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=social_sharing">and outward facial expression</a> to be friendly rather than neutral or hostile. Additional practices involve mental imagery (or visualisation) to <a href="https://soundcloud.com/courtney-walton-449877725/sets/exercises-to-promote-self">develop our “compassionate self</a>”, which we can then learn to step into. These practices make up some of the key ingredients to compassionate mind training and compassion-focused therapy, which have been <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2024-33588-001.html">shown to reduce depression and self-criticism</a>. In this way, athletes can offer themselves the support they need to get through the difficulties of Olympic and Paralympic disappointment. <h2>More than self-compassion</h2> Just as important as an athlete’s self-compassion is the receiving of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586161">compassion</a> from others. After her Rio disappointment, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-08-31/olympian-cate-campbell-pens-letter-to-trolls-qld/10186576">Cate Campbell said</a> <blockquote> Australians love winners — I felt like the only way I could endear myself to the Australian public was to come back with one of those shiny gold medals. </blockquote> So during and after these Olympic and Paralympic Games, let’s come together and support our athletes, no matter their result. For more on this topic, check out <a href="https://omny.fm/shows/psychtalks/what-do-athletes-need-for-good-mental-health">episode one of PsychTalks</a>, a podcast by the University of Melbourne’s School of Psychological Sciences.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/227904/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/christopher-mesagno-1252903">Christopher Mesagno</a>, Senior Lecturer - Sport and Exercise Psychology, Research Fellow - Institute for Health and Sport, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/victoria-university-1175">Victoria University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/courtney-c-walton-1236295">Courtney C Walton</a>, Academic Fellow & Psychologist, Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/despair-after-four-years-of-pressure-how-do-olympians-deal-with-disappointment-227904">original article</a>. </div>

Mind

Could the shingles vaccine lower your risk of dementia?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/ibrahim-javed-1552271">Ibrahim Javed</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-south-australia-1180">University of South Australia</a> A <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-024-03201-5">recent study</a> has suggested Shingrix, a relatively new vaccine given to protect older adults against shingles, may delay the onset of dementia. This might seem like a bizarre link, but actually, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34697158/">research</a> has previously shown an older version of the shingles vaccine, Zostavax, reduced the risk of dementia. In this new study, published last week in the journal Nature Medicine, researchers from the United Kingdom found Shingrix delayed dementia onset by 17% compared with Zostavax. So how did the researchers work this out, and how could a shingles vaccine affect dementia risk? <h2>From Zostavax to Shingrix</h2> Shingles is a viral infection caused by the varicella-zoster virus. It causes <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/shingles">painful rashes</a>, and affects older people in particular. Previously, Zostavax was used to vaccinate against shingles. It was administered as a single shot and provided good protection for about <a href="https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/zoster-herpes-zoster">five years</a>. Shingrix has been developed based on a newer vaccine technology, and is thought to offer stronger and longer-lasting protection. Given in two doses, it’s now the preferred option for shingles vaccination in Australia and elsewhere. In November 2023, Shingrix replaced Zostavax on the <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/news/national-immunisation-program-changes-to-shingles-vaccination-from-1-november-2023">National Immunisation Program</a>, making it available for free to those at highest risk of complications from shingles. This includes all adults aged 65 and over, First Nations people aged 50 and older, and younger adults with certain medical conditions that affect their immune systems. <h2>What the study found</h2> Shingrix was approved by the US Food and Drugs Administration in <a href="https://www.drugs.com/history/shingrix.html">October 2017</a>. The researchers in the new study used the transition from Zostavax to Shingrix in the United States as an opportunity for research. They selected 103,837 people who received Zostavax (between October 2014 and September 2017) and compared them with 103,837 people who received Shingrix (between November 2017 and October 2020). By analysing data from electronic health records, they found people who received Shingrix had a 17% increase in “diagnosis-free time” during the follow-up period (up to six years after vaccination) compared with those who received Zostavax. This was equivalent to an average of 164 extra days without a dementia diagnosis. The researchers also compared the shingles vaccines to other vaccines: influenza, and a combined vaccine for tetanus, diphtheria and pertussis. Shingrix and Zostavax performed around 14–27% better in lowering the risk of a dementia diagnosis, with Shingrix associated with a greater improvement. The benefits of Shingrix in terms of dementia risk were significant for both sexes, but more pronounced for women. This is not entirely surprising, because we know women have <a href="https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/blog/why-dementia-different-women">a higher risk</a> of developing dementia due to interplay of biological factors. These include being more sensitive to certain genetic mutations associated with dementia and hormonal differences. <h2>Why the link?</h2> The idea that vaccination against viral infection can lower the risk of dementia has been around for more than two decades. Associations have been <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11762573/">observed</a> between vaccines, such as those for diphtheria, tetanus, polio and influenza, and subsequent dementia risk. Research has shown Zostavax vaccination can <a href="https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/11/10/e045871">reduce the risk</a> of developing dementia by 20% compared with people who are unvaccinated. But it may not be that the vaccines themselves protect against dementia. Rather, it may be the resulting lack of viral infection creating this effect. Research indicates bacterial infections in the gut, as well as viral infections, are associated with a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10169152/">higher risk of dementia</a>. Notably, untreated infections with herpes simplex (herpes) virus – closely related to the varicella-zoster virus that causes shingles – can <a href="https://alz-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/trc2.12119">significantly increase</a> the risk of developing dementia. Research has also shown shingles increases the risk of a later dementia diagnosis. The mechanism is not entirely clear. But there are two potential pathways which may help us understand why infections could increase the risk of dementia. First, certain molecules are produced when a baby is developing in the womb to help with the body’s development. These molecules have the potential to cause inflammation and accelerate ageing, so the production of these molecules is silenced around birth. However, viral infections such as shingles can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2018.07.011">reactivate</a> the production of these molecules in adult life which could <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8717685/#:%7E:text=The%20disease%20mechanisms%20of%20AD,may%20lead%20to%20new%20therapies.">hypothetically lead to dementia</a>. Second, in Alzheimer’s disease, a specific protein called Amyloid-β go rogue and kill brain cells. Certain proteins produced by viruses <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.05.16.594465v1">such as COVID</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/advs.202001299">bad gut bacteria</a> have the potential to support Amyloid-β in its toxic form. In laboratory conditions, these proteins have been shown to <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1003537">accelerate the onset</a> of dementia. <h2>What does this all mean?</h2> With an ageing population, the burden of dementia is only likely to become greater in the years to come. There’s a lot more we have to learn about the causes of the disease and what we can potentially do to prevent and treat it. This new study has some limitations. For example, time without a diagnosis doesn’t necessarily mean time without disease. Some people may have underlying disease with delayed diagnosis. This research indicates Shingrix could have a silent benefit, but it’s too early to suggest we can use antiviral vaccines to prevent dementia. Overall, we need more research exploring in greater detail how infections are linked with dementia. This will help us understand the root causes of dementia and design potential therapies.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/235597/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/ibrahim-javed-1552271">Ibrahim Javed</a>, Enterprise and NHMRC Emerging Leadership Fellow, UniSA Clinical & Health Sciences, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-south-australia-1180">University of South Australia</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/could-the-shingles-vaccine-lower-your-risk-of-dementia-235597">original article</a>.

Mind

Does screen use really impact our thinking skills? Our analysis suggests it could

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michoel-moshel-1433565">Michoel Moshel</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/macquarie-university-1174">Macquarie University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jennifer-batchelor-1485101">Jennifer Batchelor</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/macquarie-university-1174">Macquarie University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/joanne-bennett-1485102">Joanne Bennett</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/australian-catholic-university-747">Australian Catholic University</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/wayne-warburton-402810">Wayne Warburton</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/macquarie-university-1174">Macquarie University</a> Screens have become seamlessly integrated into our daily lives, serving as indispensable tools for work, education and leisure. But while they enrich our lives in countless ways, we often fail to consider the potential impact of screen time on our cognitive abilities. In a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11065-023-09612-4">new meta-analysis</a> of dozens of earlier studies, we’ve found a clear link between disordered screen use and lower cognitive functioning. The findings suggest we should exercise caution before advocating for more screen time, and before introducing screens into even more aspects of daily life. <h2>Young people’s screen time is increasing</h2> In 2020, a UNSW Gonski Institute for Education report <a href="https://www.gie.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/documents/UNSW%20GIE%20GUD%20Phase%201%20Technical%20Report%20MAR20%20v2.pdf">noted a concerning statistic</a>: about 84% of Australian educators believe digital technologies are distracting in a learning environment. And according to the ABC, a recent Beyond Blue <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-18/mental-health-depression-anxiety-support-coming-for-schools/102831464">survey</a> of Australian teachers identified excessive screen time as the second-most significant challenge for young people, just behind mental health issues. Despite mounting concerns, more than half of Australian schools have embraced a “<a href="https://www.linewize.io/anz/blog/the-rise-of-byod-in-australian-schools">bring your own device</a>” policy. Students are spending more time online than <a href="https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/students-computers-and-learning_9789264239555-en#page46">ever before</a> and starting at increasingly younger ages. A 2021 report by <a href="https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/research/report/8-18-census-integrated-report-final-web_0.pdf">Common Sense Media</a> estimated tweens spend an average of 5 hours and 33 minutes using screen-based entertainment each day, while teenagers devote a whopping 8 hours and 39 minutes. A surge in screen use has led to some individuals, including children, adolescents and adults, developing screen-related addictions. One example is gaming disorder, for which <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0004867420962851">2–3% of people</a> meet the criteria. <h2>What is ‘disordered screen use’?</h2> The impact of screens on our cognitive abilities – that is, our thinking skills such as attention, memory, language and problem-solving – has sparked much debate. On one hand, some researchers and reporters claim screen use can have negative effects, such as <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-022-12701-3">health problems</a>, shortened attention <a href="https://time.com/3858309/attention-spans-goldfish/">spans</a> and hindered <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312489265_The_relationship_between_television_exposure_and_children's_cognition_and_behaviour_A_systematic_review">development</a>. On the other, schools are <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/education/tech-takeover-classrooms-crowded-with-digital-devices-20200125-p53ul1.html">increasingly adopting</a> technology to boost student engagement. Tech companies are also marketing their products as tools to help you enhance your problem-solving and memory skills. Our <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11065-023-09612-4">recent study</a> sought to understand the potential cognitive consequences of “disordered screen-related behaviours”. This is a broad category of problematic behaviours that may include screen dependency, and persisting with screen use even when it’s harmful. We conducted a meta-analysis of 34 studies that explored various forms of screen use (including gaming, internet browsing, smartphone use and social media use) and compared the cognitive performance of individuals with disordered screen use to those without it. Our findings paint a concerning picture. <h2>Differences in cognitive function</h2> Across these rigorously peer-reviewed studies, individuals with disordered screen use consistently demonstrated significantly poorer cognitive performance compared to others. The most affected cognitive domain was attention, and specifically sustained attention, which is the ability to maintain focus on an unchanging stimulus for an extended period. The second-most notable difference was in their “executive functioning” – particularly in impulse control, which is the ability to control one’s automatic responses. Interestingly, the type of screen activity didn’t make a difference in the results. The trend also wasn’t confined to children, but was observed across all age groups. <h2>Two ways to interpret the results</h2> Why do people with disordered screen-related behaviours have poorer cognitive functioning? The first explanation is that disordered screen use actually leads to poorer cognitive function, including poorer attention skills (but we’ll need more experimental and longitudinal studies to establish causality). If this is the case, it may be the result of being constantly bombarded by algorithms and features designed to capture our attention. By diverting our focus outward, screen use may weaken one’s intrinsic ability to concentrate over time. Crucially, impaired attention also <a href="https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2006/10/1/article-p77.xml">makes it harder to disengage</a> from addictive behaviours, and would therefore make it harder to recognise when screen use has become a problem. The second explanation is that people who already have poorer cognitive functioning (such as less inhibitory control) are more likely to engage in disordered screen use. This could be a result of the plethora of addictive cues designed to keep us glued to our screens. Being bombarded by these could make it harder to <a href="https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2006/9/4/article-p990.xml">pull the brakes</a> on screen use. Although the literature doesn’t seem to favour this explanation – and does seem to suggest that cognitive functioning is impaired as a result of disordered screen use – it’s still a possibility we can’t rule out. Attention is the bedrock of everyday tasks. People with weakened attention may struggle to keep up in less stimulating environments, such as a static workplace or classroom. They may find themselves turning to a screen as a result. Similarly, people with less inhibitory control would also find it more challenging to moderate their screen use. This could be what drives them towards problematic screen-related behaviours in the first place. <h2>Who should shoulder the responsibility?</h2> Research indicates people with impaired cognitive functioning usually aren’t as well equipped to moderate their own screen time. Many users with disordered screen use are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563220302326?casa_token=BQv_N_MFffYAAAAA:AsGkAfdwXjCZHJB463G40Mx-ckS2Q1c8jSOn2SWR_9iW64eWaQsru1IJAZBDCgSPXwhZ3Qwl">young</a>, with mainly males engaging in internet gaming and mainly females engaging in social media use. Neurodiverse people are <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/9/5587">also at greater risk</a>. Tech companies are driven by the goal of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/apr/18/netflix-competitor-sleep-uber-facebook">capturing our attention</a>. For instance, Netflix chief executive Reed Hastings acknowledged the company’s <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/apr/18/netflix-competitor-sleep-uber-facebook">most formidable competitor was sleep</a>. At the same time, researchers find themselves struggling to keep up with the pace of technological innovation. A potential path forward is to encourage open-access data policies from tech companies, so researchers can delve deeper into the study of screen use and its effect on individuals. <img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216828/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michoel-moshel-1433565">Michoel Moshel</a>, PhD/Masters Clinical Neuropsychology Candidate, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/macquarie-university-1174">Macquarie University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jennifer-batchelor-1485101">Jennifer Batchelor</a>, Associate Professor, School of Psychological Sciences, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/macquarie-university-1174">Macquarie University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/joanne-bennett-1485102">Joanne Bennett</a>, Lecturer, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/australian-catholic-university-747">Australian Catholic University</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/wayne-warburton-402810">Wayne Warburton</a>, Associate Professor, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/macquarie-university-1174">Macquarie University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-screen-use-really-impact-our-thinking-skills-our-analysis-suggests-it-could-216828">original article</a>.

Mind

Our obsession with taking photos is changing how we remember the past

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/giuliana-mazzoni-175429">Giuliana Mazzoni</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-hull-1191">University of Hull</a> I recently visited the <a href="http://hermitage--www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/?lng=sv">Hermitage</a> in St Petersburg, Russia – one of the best art museums in the world. I was expecting to serenely experience its masterpieces, but my view was blocked by a wall of smart phones taking pictures of the paintings. And where I could find a bit of empty space, there were people taking selfies to create lasting memories of their visit. For many people, taking hundreds, if not thousands, of pictures is now a crucial part of going on holiday – documenting every last detail and posting it on social media. But how does that affect our actual memories of the past – and how we view ourselves? As an expert on memory, I was curious. Unfortunately, psychological research on the topic is so far scant. But we do know a few things. We use smart phones and new technologies <a href="http://studie-life.de/en/life-reports/smart-payments;%20https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tim_Fawns/publication/275331048_Blended_Memory_the_Changing_Balance_of_Technologically-mediated_Semantic_and_Episodic_Memory/links/56962c6d08ae820ff07594ee.pdf">as memory repositories</a>. This is nothing new – humans have always used external devices as an aid when acquiring knowledge and remembering. Writing certainly serves this function. Historical records are collective external memories. Testimonies of migrations, settlement or battles help entire nations trace a lineage, a past and an identity. In the life of an individual, written diaries serve a similar function. <h2>Memory effects</h2> Nowadays we tend to commit very little to memory – we entrust a huge amount to the cloud. Not only is it almost unheard of to recite poems, even the most personal events are generally recorded on our cellphones. Rather than remembering what we ate at someone’s wedding, we scroll back to look at all the images we took of the food. This has serious consequences. Taking photos of an event rather than being immersed in it has been shown to lead to <a href="https://theconversation.com/memory-loss-isnt-just-an-old-persons-problem-heres-how-young-people-can-stay-mentally-fit-102352">poorer recall of the actual event</a> – we get distracted in the process. Relying on photos to remember has a similar effect. Memory needs to be exercised on a regular basis in order to function well. There are many studies documenting the importance of memory retrieval practice – <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.738.2035&rep=rep1&type=pdf">for example in university students</a>. Memory is and will remain essential for learning. There is indeed some evidence showing that committing almost all knowledge and memories to the cloud <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/691462">might hinder the ability to remember</a>. However, there is a silver lining. Even if some studies claim that all this makes us more stupid, what happens is actually shifting skills from purely being able to remember to being able to manage the way we remember more efficiently. This is called metacognition, and it is an overarching skill that is also essential for students – for example when planning what and how to study. There is also substantial and reliable evidence that external memories, selfies included, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23957379">can help</a> individuals with memory impairments. But while photos can in some instances help people to remember, the quality of the memories may be limited. We may remember what something looked like more clearly, but this could be at the expense of other types of information. One study showed that while photos could help people remember what they saw during some event, they <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797617694868">reduced their memory of what was said</a>. <h2>Identity distortions?</h2> There are some rather profound risks when it comes to personal memory. Our identity is a product of our life experiences, which can be easily accessed through our memories of the past. So, does constant photographic documentation of life experiences alter how we see ourselves? There is no substantial empirical evidence on this yet, but I would speculate that it does. Too many images are likely to make us remember the past in a fixed way – blocking other memories. While it is <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-your-first-memory-and-did-it-ever-really-happen-95953">not uncommon for early childhood memories</a> to be based on photos rather than the actual events, these are not always true memories. Another issue is the fact that research has uncovered <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563216302503;%20http://www.vulture.com/2014/01/history-of-the-selfie.html">a lack of spontaneity in selfies</a> and many other photos. They are planned, the poses are not natural and at times the image of the person is distorted. They also reflect a narcissistic tendency which shapes the face in unnatural mimics – artificial big smiles, sensual pouts, funny faces or offensive gestures. Importantly, selfies and many other photos are also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5318447/">public displays</a> of specific attitudes, intentions and stances. In other words, they do not really reflect who we are, they reflect what we want to show to others about ourselves at the moment. If we rely heavily on photos when remembering our past, we may create a distorted self identity based on the image we wanted to promote to others. That said, our natural memory isn’t actually perfectly accurate. Research shows that we often <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-real-you-is-a-myth-we-constantly-create-false-memories-to-achieve-the-identity-we-want-103253">create false memories about the past</a>. We do this in order to maintain the identity that we want to have over time – and avoid conflicting narratives about who we are. So if you have always been rather soft and kind – but through some significant life experience decide you are tough – you may dig up memories of being aggressive in the past or even completely make them up. Having multiple daily memory reports on the phone of how we were in the past might therefore render our memory less malleable and less adaptable to the changes brought about by life – making our identity more stable and fixed. But this can create problems if our present identity becomes different from our fixed, past one. That is an uncomfortable experience and exactly what the “normal” functioning of memory is aimed to avoid – it is malleable so that we can have a non-contradictory narrative about ourselves. We want to think of ourselves as having a certain unchanging “core”. If we feel unable to change how we see ourselves over time, this could seriously affect our sense of agency and mental health. So our obsession with taking photos may be causing both memory loss and uncomfortable identity discrepancies. It is interesting to think about how technology changes the way we behave and function. As long as we are aware of the risks, we can probably mitigate harmful effects. The possibility that actually sends shivers to my spine is that we lose all those precious pictures because of some widespread malfunctioning of our smart phones. So the next time you’re at a museum, do take a moment to look up and experience it all. Just in case those photos go missing.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109285/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/giuliana-mazzoni-175429">Giuliana Mazzoni</a>, Professor of Psychology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-hull-1191">University of Hull</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/our-obsession-with-taking-photos-is-changing-how-we-remember-the-past-109285">original article</a>.

Mind

Is it really possible to have Alzheimer’s yet no symptoms?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michael-hornberger-1507154">Michael Hornberger</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-east-anglia-1268">University of East Anglia</a> Some people seem to be more <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11003087/#:%7E:text=Some%20individuals%20are%20able%20to,into%20a%20widely%20debated%20concept.">resilient</a> to developing Alzheimer’s diseases, despite having the biological hallmarks of the devastating disease. For obvious reasons, scientists are very interested in studying this special group of people. Alzheimer’s disease, the most common form of dementia, is thought to start because of a build-up of two proteins in the brain: amyloid and tau. Once these proteins accumulate, for yet-to-be-determined reasons, they become toxic to brain cells (neurons) and these cells start dying. As a result, people develop symptoms such as memory loss because the brain can’t function properly with all these dead neurons. This cascade of events has been known for many years and is how the disease progresses in most people with Alzheimer’s. Most people, except a special group who are more resilient. But why are they resilient? A recent study in the journal <a href="https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40478-024-01760-9">Acta Neuropathologica Communications</a> investigated whether our genes might influence how resilient we are against Alzheimer’s disease symptoms when there are high levels of amyloid in our brain. The scientists conducted a study on the brains of three groups of people. The first group comprised people who had died with Alzheimer’s disease. The second were healthy people who died of natural causes. And the third comprised people who had high levels of Alzheimer’s proteins in the brain but never developed symptoms of the disease during their lifetime – or at least never had a diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease. The last group, they considered as being resilient to Alzheimer’s disease since they had the proteins in their brains but did not have the symptoms or a diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease during their lifetime. The scientists found that genes related to the activity of the immune system seem to have been more active in the Alzheimer’s resilient group. This would make sense as it is well established that the immune system helps clear the excess proteins from the brain, so genes that help this process might make us more resilient to developing symptoms of the disease. <h2>How to become resilient – even if you don’t have the genes</h2> This is great if you have inherited these genes from your parents, but what does it mean for the rest of us who do not have those genes? Is there a way we can make ourselves more resilient to developing Alzheimer’s disease regardless of our genes? “Yes” is the short answer. There is now good scientific evidence that <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-alzheimers-really-be-reversed-as-a-new-documentary-claims-230705">lifestyle changes</a> and drugs allow us to reduce our risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease in the future. In particular, physical activity has been shown to reduce our risk of developing Alzheimer’s, probably because it has a well-known beneficial effect on our immune system and hence helps clear those rogue proteins accumulating in our brains. This means that being more physically active might have the same effect on our Alzheimer’s resilience as those lucky people who have the “right” genes. Interestingly, we do not know how physically active the resilient people in the study were and how this might have influenced their resilience to Alzheimer’s disease. As so often in science, it is not clear whether nature (genes) or nurture (lifestyle) contributed to their resilience. The other interesting aspect is that the resilient people in the study died of another cause than Alzheimer’s disease, but they might have developed Alzheimer’s disease eventually if they had lived longer.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/230334/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michael-hornberger-1507154">Michael Hornberger</a>, Professor of Applied Dementia Research, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-east-anglia-1268">University of East Anglia</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-really-possible-to-have-alzheimers-yet-no-symptoms-230334">original article</a>.

Mind

Think you’ve decided what to buy? Actually, your brain is still deciding – even as you put it in your basket

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/tijl-grootswagers-954175">Tijl Grootswagers</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/genevieve-l-quek-1447582">Genevieve L Quek</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/manuel-varlet-156210">Manuel Varlet</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a> You are standing in the cereal aisle, weighing up whether to buy a healthy bran or a sugary chocolate-flavoured alternative. Your hand hovers momentarily before you make the final grab. But did you know that during those last few seconds, while you’re reaching out, your brain is still evaluating the pros and cons – influenced by everything from your last meal, the health star rating, the catchy jingle in the ad, and the colours of the letters on the box? Our recently published <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-62135-7">research</a> shows our brains do not just think first and then act. Even while you are reaching for a product on a supermarket shelf, your brain is still evaluating whether you are making the right choice. Further, we found measuring hand movements offers an accurate window into the brain’s ongoing evaluation of the decision – you don’t have to hook people up to expensive brain scanners. What does this say about our decision-making? And what does it mean for consumers and the people marketing to them? <h2>What hand movements tell us about decision-making</h2> There has been <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-051053">debate within neuroscience</a> on whether a person’s movements to enact a decision can be modified once the brain’s “motor plan” has been made. Our research revealed not only that movements can be changed after a decision – “in flight” – but also the changes matched incoming information from a person’s senses. To study <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-62135-7">how our decisions unfold over time</a>, we tracked people’s hand movements as they reached for different options shown in pictures – for example, in response to the question “is this picture a face or an object?” When choices were easy, their hands moved straight to the right option. But when choices were harder, new information made the brain change its mind, and this was reflected in the trajectory of their hand movements. When we compared these hand movement trajectories to brain activity recorded using neuroimaging, we found that the timing and amount of evidence of the brain’s evaluation matched the movement pattern. Put simply, reaching movements are shaped by ongoing thinking and decision-making. By showing that brain patterns match movement trajectories, our research also highlights that large, expensive brain scanners may not always be required to study the brain’s decision evaluation processes, as movement tracking is much more cost-effective and much easier to test on a large scale. <h2>What does this mean for consumers and marketers?</h2> For consumers, knowing our brains are always reevaluating decisions we might think of as “final” can help us be more aware of our choices. For simple decisions such as choosing a breakfast cereal, the impact may be small. Even if you have preemptively decided on a healthy option, you might be tempted at the last minute by the flashy packaging of a less healthy choice. But for important long-term decisions such as choosing a mortgage, it can have serious effects. On the other side of the coin, marketers have long known that many purchase decisions are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0969698912000781">made on the spot</a>. They use strategies such as attractive packaging and strategic product placement to influence people’s decisions. New ways of studying how people’s brains process information – right up to the last minute – can help marketers design more effective strategies. <h2>Opportunities for further research</h2> Further research in this area could explore how different types of information, such as environmental cues or memories, affect this continuous decision evaluation process in different groups of people. For example, how do people of different ages process information while making decisions? Our finding – that hand movements reflect the inner workings of the brain’s decision making process – could make future studies cheaper and more efficient. The ability to fine-tune marketing in this way has implications beyond just selling products. It can also make public strategic messaging far more effective. This could include tailoring a public health campaign on vaping specifically for people aged under 30, or targeting messaging about superannuation scams more effectively at those of retirement age. The act of reaching for a product is not a simple consequence of a decision already made; it’s a highly dynamic process. Being aware of what influences our last-minute decision-making can help us make better choices that have better outcomes.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/234167/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/tijl-grootswagers-954175">Tijl Grootswagers</a>, Senior Research Fellow in Cognitive Neuroscience, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/genevieve-l-quek-1447582">Genevieve L Quek</a>, Research Fellow, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/manuel-varlet-156210">Manuel Varlet</a>, Associate Professor in Cognitive Neuroscience, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/think-youve-decided-what-to-buy-actually-your-brain-is-still-deciding-even-as-you-put-it-in-your-basket-234167">original article</a>.

Mind

Tastes from our past can spark memories, trigger pain or boost wellbeing. Here’s how to embrace food nostalgia

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/megan-lee-490875">Megan Lee</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/doug-angus-1542552">Doug Angus</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/kate-simpson-1542551">Kate Simpson</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> Have you ever tried to bring back fond memories by eating or drinking something unique to that time and place? It could be a Pina Colada that recalls an island holiday? Or a steaming bowl of pho just like the one you had in Vietnam? Perhaps eating a favourite dish reminds you of a lost loved one – like the sticky date pudding Nanna used to make? If you have, you have tapped into <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02699931.2022.2142525">food-evoked nostalgia</a>. As researchers, we are exploring how eating and drinking certain things from your past may be important for your mood and mental health. <h2>Bittersweet longing</h2> First named in 1688 by Swiss medical student, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44437799">Johannes Hoffer</a>, <a href="https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/spc3.12070">nostalgia</a> is that bittersweet, sentimental longing for the past. It is experienced <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00595.x">universally</a> across different cultures and lifespans from childhood into older age. But nostalgia does not just involve positive or happy memories – we can also experience nostalgia for <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.91.5.975">sad and unhappy moments</a> in our lives. In the <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Femo0000817">short and long term</a>, nostalgia can positively impact our health by improving <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0025167">mood</a> and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Femo0000817">wellbeing</a>, fostering <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0017597">social connection</a> and increasing quality of life. It can also trigger feelings of <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Femo0000817">loneliness or meaninglessness</a>. We can use nostalgia to <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0025167">turn around a negative mood</a> or enhance our sense of <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Femo0000817">self, meaning and positivity</a>. Research suggests nostalgia alters activity in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/17/12/1131/6585517">brain regions associated with reward processing</a> – the same areas involved when we seek and receive things we like. This could explain the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352250X22002445?via%3Dihub">positive feelings</a> it can bring. Nostalgia can also increase feelings of loneliness and sadness, particularly if the memories highlight dissatisfaction, grieving, loss, or wistful feelings for the past. This is likely due to activation of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X22002445?casa_token=V31ORDWcsx4AAAAA:Vef9hiwUz9506f5PYGsXH-JxCcnsptQnVPNaAGares2xTU5JbKSHakwGpLxSRO2dNckrdFGubA">brain areas</a> such as the amygdala, responsible for processing emotions and the prefrontal cortex that helps us integrate feelings and memories and regulate emotion. <h2>How to get back there</h2> There are several ways we can <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2006-20034-013.html">trigger</a> or tap into nostalgia. Conversations with family and friends who have shared experiences, unique objects like photos, and smells can <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352250X23000076">transport us back</a> to old times or places. So can a favourite song or old TV show, reunions with former classmates, even social media <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2015/3/24/8284703/facebook-on-this-day-nostalgia-recap">posts and anniversaries</a>. What we eat and drink can trigger <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/QMR-06-2012-0027/full/html">food-evoked nostalgia</a>. For instance, when we think of something as “<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-why-do-we-crave-comfort-food-in-winter-118776">comfort food</a>”, there are likely elements of nostalgia at play. Foods you found comforting as a child can evoke memories of being cared for and nurtured by loved ones. The form of these foods and the stories we tell about them may have been handed down through generations. Food-evoked nostalgia can be very powerful because it engages multiple senses: taste, smell, texture, sight and sound. The sense of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09658211.2013.876048?casa_token=wqShWbRXJaYAAAAA%3AqJabgHtEbPtEQp7qHnl7wOb527bpGxzIJ_JwQX8eAyq1IrM_HQFIng8ELAMyuoFoeZyiX1zeJTPf">smell</a> is closely linked to the limbic system in the brain responsible for emotion and memory making food-related memories particularly vivid and emotionally charged. But, food-evoked nostalgia can also give rise to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/hpja.873">negative memories</a>, such as of being forced to eat a certain vegetable you disliked as a child, or a food eaten during a sad moment like a loved ones funeral. Understanding why these foods <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02699931.2022.2142525?casa_token=16kAPHUQTukAAAAA%3A9IDvre8yUT8UsuiR_ltsG-3qgE2sdkIFgcrdH3T5EYbVEP9JZwPcsbmsPLT6Kch5EFFs9RPsMTNn">evoke negative memories</a> could help us process and overcome some of our adult food aversions. Encountering these foods in a positive light may help us reframe the memory associated with them. <h2>What people told us about food and nostalgia</h2> Recently <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/hpja.873">we interviewed eight Australians</a> and asked them about their experiences with food-evoked nostalgia and the influence on their mood. We wanted to find out whether they experienced food-evoked nostalgia and if so, what foods triggered pleasant and unpleasant memories and feelings for them. They reported they could use foods that were linked to times in their past to manipulate and influence their mood. Common foods they described as particularly nostalgia triggering were homemade meals, foods from school camp, cultural and ethnic foods, childhood favourites, comfort foods, special treats and snacks they were allowed as children, and holiday or celebration foods. One participant commented: <blockquote> I guess part of this nostalgia is maybe […] The healing qualities that food has in mental wellbeing. I think food heals for us. </blockquote> Another explained <blockquote> I feel really happy, and I guess fortunate to have these kinds of foods that I can turn to, and they have these memories, and I love the feeling of nostalgia and reminiscing and things that remind me of good times. </blockquote> Understanding food-evoked nostalgia is valuable because it provides us with an insight into how our sensory experiences and emotions intertwine with our memories and identity. While we know a lot about how food triggers nostalgic memories, there is still much to learn about the specific brain areas involved and the differences in food-evoked nostalgia in different cultures. In the future we may be able to use the science behind food-evoked nostalgia to help people experiencing dementia to tap into lost memories or in psychological therapy to help people reframe negative experiences. So, if you are ever feeling a little down and want to improve your mood, consider turning to one of your favourite comfort foods that remind you of home, your loved ones or a holiday long ago. Transporting yourself back to those times could help turn things around.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/232826/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/megan-lee-490875">Megan Lee</a>, Senior Teaching Fellow, Psychology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/doug-angus-1542552">Doug Angus</a>, Assistant Professor of Psychology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/kate-simpson-1542551">Kate Simpson</a>, Sessional academic, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/tastes-from-our-past-can-spark-memories-trigger-pain-or-boost-wellbeing-heres-how-to-embrace-food-nostalgia-232826">original article</a>.

Mind

Wellness is not women’s friend. It’s a distraction from what really ails us

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/kate-seers-1131296">Kate Seers</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/charles-sturt-university-849">Charles Sturt University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/rachel-hogg-321332">Rachel Hogg</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/charles-sturt-university-849">Charles Sturt University</a> Wellness is mainly marketed to women. We’re encouraged to eat clean, take <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CYqaatWPxvy/">personal responsibility</a> for our well-being, happiness and life. These are the hallmarks of a strong, independent woman in 2022. But on the eve of International Women’s Day, let’s look closer at this <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-neoliberalism-colonised-feminism-and-what-you-can-do-about-it-94856">neoliberal feminist</a> notion of wellness and personal responsibility – the idea women’s health and well-being depends on our individual choices. We argue wellness is not concerned with actual well-being, whatever wellness “guru” and businesswoman Gwyneth Paltrow <a href="https://goop.com/wellness/">suggests</a>, or influencers say on Instagram. Wellness is an industry. It’s also a seductive distraction from what’s really impacting women’s lives. It glosses over the structural issues undermining women’s well-being. These issues cannot be fixed by drinking a turmeric latte or #livingyourbestlife. <h2>What is wellness?</h2> Wellness <a href="https://globalwellnessinstitute.org/press-room/statistics-and-facts/">is an</a> unregulated US$4.4 trillion global industry due to reach almost $7 trillion by 2025. It promotes self-help, self-care, fitness, nutrition and spiritual practice. It <a href="https://globalwellnessinstitute.org/what-is-wellness/">encourages</a> good choices, intentions and actions. Wellness is alluring because it feels empowering. Women are left with a sense of control over their lives. It is particularly alluring in times of great uncertainty and limited personal control. These might be during a relationship break up, when facing financial instability, workplace discrimination or a global pandemic. But wellness is not all it seems. <h2>Wellness blames women</h2> Wellness implies women are flawed and need to be fixed. It demands women resolve their psychological distress, improve their lives and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1360780418769673?journalCode=sroa">bounce back from adversity</a>, regardless of personal circumstances. Self-responsibility, self-empowerment and self-optimisation underpin how women are expected to think and behave. As such, wellness <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CZs2iIxrSwb/">patronises women</a> and <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CT3bw_Yhsp6/">micro-manages their daily schedules</a> with journaling, skin care routines, 30-day challenges, meditations, burning candles, yoga and lemon water. Wellness encourages women to improve their appearance through diet and exercise, manage <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CZ7IO7qJHZ_/">their surroundings</a>, <a href="https://www.businessnewsdaily.com/5489-female-leadership-advice.html">performance at work</a> and their capacity to <a href="https://www.apa.org/topics/covid-19/working-women-balance">juggle the elusive work-life balance</a> as well as <a href="https://medium.com/authority-magazine/having-a-positive-mental-attitude-and-thinking-process-is-a-successful-key-to-healthy-wellbeing-ae11e303969c">their emotional responses</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/planning-stress-and-worry-put-the-mental-load-on-mothers-will-2022-be-the-year-they-share-the-burden-172599">to these pressures</a>. They do this with support from costly life coaches, psychotherapists and self-help guides. Wellness demands women <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CaFc2o7OHSf/">focus on their body</a>, with one’s body a measure of their commitment to the task of wellness. Yet this ignores how much these choices and actions cost. Newsreader and journalist Tracey Spicer <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CaDh28nBp4k/">says</a> she has spent more than A$100,000 over the past 35 years for her hair to “look acceptable” at work. Wellness keeps women <a href="https://www.hercampus.com/school/bu/the-male-gazes-effect-from-beauty-ideals-to-mental-health/">focused on their appearance</a> and keeps them spending. It’s also <a href="https://medium.com/artfullyautistic/the-dark-reality-of-wellness-culture-and-ableism-307307fcdafb">ableist</a>, <a href="https://www.byrdie.com/wellness-industry-whitewashing-5074880">racist</a>, <a href="https://msmagazine.com/2020/07/16/tools-of-the-patriarchy-diet-culture-and-how-we-all-perpetuate-the-stigma/">sexist</a>, <a href="https://www.self.com/topic/anti-aging">ageist</a> and <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/on-the-inside/422517/the-pursuit-of-wellness-wellness-is-for-the-wealthy">classist</a>. It’s aimed at an ideal of young women, thin, white, middle-class and able-bodied. <h2>But we can’t live up to these ideals</h2> Wellness assumes women have equal access to time, energy and money to meet these ideals. If you don’t, “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2021/may/08/the-self-help-cult-of-resilience-teaches-australians-nothing">you’re just not trying hard enough</a>”. Wellness also <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1360780418769673?journalCode=sroa">implores women</a> to be “adaptable and positive”. If an individual’s #positivevibes and wellness are seen as <a href="https://ideas.ted.com/why-we-should-say-no-to-positivity-and-yes-to-our-negative-emotions/">morally good</a>, then it becomes morally necessary for women to engage in behaviours framed as “investments” or “self-care”. For those who do not achieve self-optimisation (hint: most of us) this is a personal, shameful failing. <h2>Wellness distracts us</h2> When women believe they are to blame for their circumstances, it hides structural and cultural inequities. Rather than questioning the culture that marginalises women and produces feelings of doubt and inadequacy, wellness provides solutions in the form of superficial empowerment, confidence and resilience. Women don’t need wellness. They are unsafe. <a href="https://www.ourwatch.org.au/quick-facts/">Women are</a> <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice/personal-safety-australia/latest-release">more likely</a> to be murdered by a current or former intimate partner, with reports of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-governments-can-do-about-the-increase-in-family-violence-due-to-coronavirus-135674">pandemic increasing</a> the risk and severity of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/dec/01/the-worst-year-domestic-violence-soars-in-australia-during-covid-19">domestic violence</a>. Women are more likely to be employed in unstable <a href="https://lighthouse.mq.edu.au/article/april-2020/Pandemics-economic-blow-hits-women-hard">casualised labour, and experience economic hardship and poverty</a>. Women are also bearing the brunt <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/womens-work/">of the economic fallout from COVID</a>. Women are more likely to be juggling a career with <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/374/bmj.n1972">unpaid domestic duties</a> and more likely <a href="https://www.mercyfoundation.com.au/our-focus/ending-homelessness/older-women-and-homelessness/">to be homeless</a> as they near retirement age. In their book <a href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/confidence-culture#:%7E:text=They%20argue%20that%20while%20confidence,responsible%20for%20their%20own%20conditions.">Confidence Culture</a> UK scholars Shani Orgad and Rosalind Gill argue hashtags such as #loveyourbody and #believeinyourself imply psychological blocks, rather than entrenched social injustices, are what hold women back. <h2>What we should be doing instead</h2> Wellness, with its self-help rhetoric, <a href="http://www.consultmcgregor.com/documents/research/neoliberalism_and_health_care.pdf">absolves the government</a> of responsibility to provide transformative and effectual action that ensures women are safe, delivered justice, and treated with respect and dignity. Structural inequity was not created by an individual, and it will not be solved by an individual. So this International Women’s Day, try to resist the neoliberal requirement to take personal responsibility for your wellness. Lobby governments to address structural inequities instead. <a href="https://www.mindful.org/why-women-should-embrace-their-anger/">Follow your anger</a>, not your bliss, call out injustices when you can. And in the words of sexual assault survivor and advocate Grace Tame, “make some noise”. <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/kate-seers-1131296">Kate Seers</a>, PhD Candidate, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/charles-sturt-university-849">Charles Sturt University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/rachel-hogg-321332">Rachel Hogg</a>, Lecturer in Psychology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/charles-sturt-university-849">Charles Sturt University</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/wellness-is-not-womens-friend-its-a-distraction-from-what-really-ails-us-177446">original article</a>.

Mind

Julian Assange was isolated for more than a decade. Here’s what that does to the body and mind

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/carol-maher-217811">Carol Maher</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-south-australia-1180">University of South Australia</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/johanna-badcock-995697">Johanna Badcock</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-western-australia-1067">The University of Western Australia</a> Anyone who lived through the COVID pandemic would likely understand that even a small period of isolation can cause <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35787541/">physical and mental stress</a>. WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange – <a href="https://theconversation.com/julian-assange-will-be-freed-after-striking-plea-deal-with-us-authorities-233210">who will return to Australia</a> after reaching a plea deal with the US Department of Justice – is <a href="https://www.afr.com/policy/foreign-affairs/his-health-is-very-risky-assange-s-brother-fears-for-his-life-20240327-p5ffjw">reported to have suffered</a> various mental and physical challenges during his almost 15 years in some form of isolation. Assange was first arrested in Britain in 2010 after Swedish authorities said they wanted to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/media/2010/dec/17/julian-assange-sweden">question him over sex crime allegations</a>. After exhausting legal avenues to stop an extradition to Sweden, in June 2012 he entered <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/may/15/julian-assange-ecuador-london-embassy-how-he-became-unwelcome-guest">Ecuador’s embassy in London</a>, where he remained for seven years. In early 2019, he was <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKCN1S73H5/">jailed for skipping bail</a> and held at London’s Belmarsh prison where he spent most of the following five years fighting extradition to the US. Now, he’s coming home. While we have no idea how Assange is coping from being cooped up inside for so long with few visitors, we do know that isolation can have <a href="https://theconversation.com/my-own-prison-ordeal-gave-me-a-taste-of-what-assange-may-be-feeling-hes-out-but-the-chilling-effect-on-press-freedom-remains-233215">a severe negative impact</a> on many people. <iframe id="qxq2l" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" style="border: none;" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/qxq2l/" width="100%" height="400px" frameborder="0"></iframe> <h2>How physical inactivity impacts your body</h2> Physical activity is vital for <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/articlepdf/2712935/jama_piercy_2018_sc_180005.pdf">overall health</a>. It keeps your heart strong, helps manage weight, and builds muscle and bone strength. Regular exercise also lifts your mood, reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety, and sharpens your mind. Plus, it boosts your <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7195025/">immune system</a>, making you more resistant to infections and diseases. When you don’t move enough, especially in isolation, your health can take a hit. Muscles weaken and joints stiffen, making you less strong and flexible. Your <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/01.CIR.102.9.975">heart health</a> suffers, too, raising the risk of high blood pressure, heart attacks and strokes because your heart isn’t getting the workout it needs. Metabolic issues such as obesity and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6908414/">type 2 diabetes</a> become more common with inactivity, especially if you don’t have access to healthy food. Isolation often means less fresh air and sunlight, both crucial for good health. Poor ventilation can lead to <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/8/2927/pdf">respiratory problems</a>. Lack of sunlight can cause <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article-pdf/95/6/2630/9067013/jcem2630.pdf">vitamin D deficiency</a>, weakening bones and the immune system, and increasing the risk of fractures. These effects fit with the reports that Assange suffered a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/media/2022/mar/23/today-i-will-marry-the-love-of-my-life-julian-assanges-fiancee">mini-stroke</a> in 2021 and a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2024/feb/18/julian-assange-press-freedom-wikileaks-uk-high-court">broken rib</a> from persistent coughing fits while in isolation. <h2>What about mental health?</h2> Social disconnection comes in two main forms, both of which have serious consequences for our mental health. The first is social isolation. The reasons for being isolated are many and varied, including geographical distance, lack of access to transport, or incarceration. The end result is the same: you have few relationships, social roles or group memberships, and limited social interaction. The second form of social disconnection is more invisible but just as harmful. <a href="https://psychology.org.au/for-the-public/psychology-topics/loneliness">Loneliness</a> is that subjective, unpleasant feeling of wanting but lacking satisfying relationships with others. You can be isolated and not feel lonely, but the two are often unwelcome bedfellows. Social connection is not a luxury. It’s a fundamental need, as essential to our health as food and water. Just as hunger reminds us to eat, <a href="https://healthymale.org.au/health-article/what-is-loneliness-and-social-isolation">loneliness acts as a signal</a> alerting us that our social relationships are weak and need to be improved if we are to remain healthy. The science around the health impacts of social disconnection is clear, especially when it is prolonged. So much so, the World Health Organization recently launched a <a href="https://www.who.int/groups/commission-on-social-connection">Commission on Social Connection</a> to increase awareness of the impact of social isolation and loneliness on health and have it recognised as a global health priority. Substantial evidence shows social isolation and loneliness are linked to poorer cognitive functioning and an increased risk of dementia, though possibly in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9995915/">different ways</a>. Among adults aged 50 years and over, chronic (meaning persistent and severe) loneliness and social isolation may increase the risk of dementia by <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13651501.2021.1959616">around 50%</a>. A lack of cognitive stimulation that naturally occurs when interacting with others, whether it’s old friends or strangers, might explain <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9995915/">the link</a> between social isolation and cognitive difficulties (think “use it or lose it”). On the other hand, loneliness <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9995915/">may impact cognitive health</a> through its effects on emotional wellbeing. It’s <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-13049-9">a well-known risk factor</a> for developing depression, anxiety and suicidality. For instance, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35583561/">studies show</a> the chances of developing depression in adults is more than double in people who often feel lonely, compared with those who rarely or never feel lonely. Other research examining 500,000 middle-aged adults over nine years showed living alone doubled the risk of dying by suicide for men, while loneliness <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33096330">increased the risk of hospitalisation</a> for self-harm in both men and women. In a <a href="https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-social-connection-advisory.pdf">2023 report</a>, the US Surgeon General’s advisory concluded: <blockquote> Given the totality of the evidence, social connection may be one of the strongest protective factors against self-harm and suicide among people with and without serious underlying mental health challenges. </blockquote> <h2>What about after release?</h2> When a person leaves long-term isolation, they’ll face many challenges as they re-enter society. The world will have changed. There’s a lot to catch up on, from technological advancements to shifts in social norms. In addition to these broader changes, there’s a need to focus on rebuilding physical and mental health. Health issues that developed during isolation can <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30460-8/fulltext?cid=in%3Adisplay%3Alfhtn0&dclid=CNKCgb7nle0CFVUkjwodG0YCkg">persist or worsen</a>. A weakened immune system might struggle with new infections in a post-COVID world. To navigate this transition, it’s important to establish a routine that includes regular exercise, nutritious meals and comprehensive medical and psychological care. Gradually increasing social interactions can also help in rebuilding relationships and social connections. These steps are supportive in restoring overall health and wellbeing in a changed world.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/233214/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/carol-maher-217811">Carol Maher</a>, Professor, Medical Research Future Fund Emerging Leader, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-south-australia-1180">University of South Australia</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/johanna-badcock-995697">Johanna Badcock</a>, Adjunct Professor, School of Psychological Science | Freelance Research Consultant, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-western-australia-1067">The University of Western Australia</a> Image credits: Ray Tang/Shutterstock Editorial This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/julian-assange-was-isolated-for-more-than-a-decade-heres-what-that-does-to-the-body-and-mind-233214">original article</a>. </div>

Mind

Is social media making you unhappy? The answer is not so simple

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/melissa-humphries-584274">Melissa Humphries</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-adelaide-1119">University of Adelaide</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/lewis-mitchell-266859">Lewis Mitchell</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-adelaide-1119">University of Adelaide</a> You may have seen headlines that link social media to sadness and depression. Social media use goes up, happiness goes down. But recent studies suggest those findings might not be so straightforward. Although it is true that people’s feelings of envy and depression are linked to high social media use, there is evidence to suggest social media use may not be causing that relationship. Instead, your mindset may be the biggest thing affecting how social media connects to your wellbeing. People who feel they are able to use social media, rather than social media “using them”, tend to gain more benefits from their online interactions. <h2>Why do people use social media?</h2> Social media covers a broad range of platforms: social networking, discussion forums, bookmarking and sharing content, disseminating news, exchanging media like photos and videos, and microblogging. These appeal to a wide range of users, from individuals of all ages through to massive businesses. For some, social media is a way to connect with people we may not otherwise see. In the United States, 39% of people say they <a href="https://www.americansurveycenter.org/research/the-state-of-american-friendship-change-challenges-and-loss">are friends with people they only interact with online</a>. For older people, this is especially important for increasing feelings of connectedness and wellbeing. Interestingly though, for older people, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563223004545">social media contact with family does not increase happiness</a>. Meanwhile, younger adults report increased happiness when they have more social media contact with family members. Teens, in particular, find social media most useful for <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2022/11/16/connection-creativity-and-drama-teen-life-on-social-media-in-2022/">deepening connections and building their social networks</a>. With social media clearly playing such an important role in society, many researchers have tried to figure out: does it make us happier or not? <h2>Does social media make us happier?</h2> Studies have taken a variety of approaches, including asking people directly through surveys or looking at the content people post and seeing how positive or negative it is. One survey study from 2023 showed that as individuals’ social media use increased, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372582895_The_Relationship_Between_Social_Media_Addiction_Happiness_and_Life_Satisfaction_in_Adults_Analysis_with_Machine_Learning_Approach">life satisfaction and happiness decreased</a>. Another found that <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0144929X.2023.2286529">less time on social media</a> was related to increases in work satisfaction, work engagement and positive mental health – so improved mental health and motivation at work. Comparing yourself to others on social media is connected to feelings of envy and depression. However, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9955439/">there is evidence</a> to suggest depression is the predictor, rather than the outcome, of both social comparison and envy. All this shows <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jcmc/article/29/1/zmad048/7612379?login=false">the way you feel about social media matters</a>. People who see themselves using social media rather than “being used” by it, tend to gain benefits from social media and not experience the harms. Interviews with young people (15–24 years) using social media suggest that positive mental health among that age group was influenced by <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8933808/">three features</a>: <ul> <li>connection with friends and their global community</li> <li>engagement with social media content</li> <li>the value of social media as an outlet for expression.</li> </ul> There are also studies that look at the emotions expressed by more frequent social media users. The so-called “<a href="https://epjdatascience.springeropen.com/articles/10.1140/epjds/s13688-017-0100-1">happiness paradox</a>” shows that most people think their friends on social media appear happier than themselves. This is a <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3110025.3110027">seeming impossibility</a> that arises because of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep04603">the mathematical properties</a> of how friendship networks work on social media. In one of our studies, Twitter content with recorded locations showed residents of cities in the United States that <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/figure?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064417.g007">tweeted more tended to express less happiness</a>. On the other hand, in Instagram direct messages, happiness has been found to be <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/20563051241229655">four times more prevalent than sadness</a>. <h2>How does internet use in general affect our wellbeing?</h2> Some of the factors associated with decreased mental health are not aligned with social media use alone. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0963721419838244">One recent study</a> shows that the path to decreased wellbeing is, at least partially, connected to digital media use overall (rather than social media use specifically). This can be due to sleep disruption, reduced face-to-face social interaction or physical activity, social comparison, and cyberbullying. None of these exist for social media alone. However, social media platforms are known to be driven by recommendation algorithms that may send us down “rabbit holes” of the same type of (increasingly extreme) content. This can lead to a distorted view of the world and our place in it. The important point here is to maintain a diverse and balanced information diet online. Interestingly, interacting on social media is not the only thing affecting our mental state. <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0090315">Rainfall influnces</a> the emotional content of social media posts of both the user experiencing rain, and parts of their extended network (even if they don’t experience rain!). This suggests that how we feel is influenced by the emotions in the posts we see. The good news is that happy posts are the most influential, with each happy post encouraging close to two additional happy updates from a user’s friends. The secret to online happiness therefore may not be to “delete your account” entirely (which, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-018-0510-5">as we have found</a>, may not even be effective), but to be mindful about what you consume online. And if you feel like social media is starting to use you, it might be time to change it up a bit.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/232490/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/melissa-humphries-584274">Melissa Humphries</a>, Senior Lecturer, School of Computer and Mathematical Sciences, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-adelaide-1119">University of Adelaide</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/lewis-mitchell-266859">Lewis Mitchell</a>, Professor of Data Science, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-adelaide-1119">University of Adelaide</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-social-media-making-you-unhappy-the-answer-is-not-so-simple-232490">original article</a>.

Mind

Do you have a mental illness? Why some people answer ‘yes’, even if they haven’t been diagnosed

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jesse-tse-1429151">Jesse Tse</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/nick-haslam-10182">Nick Haslam</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> Mental illnesses such as depression and anxiety disorders have become more prevalent, especially among <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/mental-health/overview/prevalence-and-impact-of-mental-illness#changeovertime">young people</a>. Demand for treatment is surging and prescriptions of some <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35176912/">psychiatric medications</a> have climbed. These upswinging prevalence trends are paralleled by rising public attention to mental illness. Mental health messages saturate traditional and social media. Organisations and governments are developing awareness, prevention and treatment initiatives with growing urgency. The mounting cultural focus on mental health has obvious benefits. It increases awareness, reduces stigma and promotes help-seeking. However, it may also have costs. Critics worry <a href="https://www.bacp.co.uk/bacp-journals/therapy-today/2023/april-2023/the-big-issue/">social media</a> sites are incubating mental illness and that ordinary unhappiness is being pathologised by the overuse of diagnostic concepts and “<a href="https://www.bustle.com/wellness/is-therapy-speak-making-us-selfish">therapy speak</a>”. British psychologist <a href="https://www.psych.ox.ac.uk/team/lucy-foulkes">Lucy Foulkes</a> argues the trends for rising attention and prevalence are linked. Her “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0732118X2300003X">prevalence inflation hypothesis</a>” proposes that increasing awareness of mental illness may lead some people to diagnose themselves inaccurately when they are experiencing relatively mild or transient problems. Foulkes’ hypothesis implies that some people develop overly broad concepts of mental illness. Our research supports this view. In a new study, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560324000318?via%3Dihub">we show</a> that concepts of mental illness have broadened in recent years – a phenomenon we call “<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1047840X.2016.1082418">concept creep</a>” – and that <a href="https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-023-05152-6">people differ</a> in the breadth of their concepts of mental illness. <h2>Why do people self-diagnose mental illnesses?</h2> In our new <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100326">study</a>, we examined whether people with broad concepts of mental illness are, in fact, more likely to self-diagnose. We defined self-diagnosis as a person’s belief they have an illness, whether or not they have received the diagnosis from a professional. We assessed people as having a “broad concept of mental illness” if they judged a wide variety of experiences and behaviours to be disorders, including relatively mild conditions. We asked a nationally representative sample of 474 American adults if they believed they had a mental disorder and if they had received a diagnosis from a health professional. We also asked about other possible contributing factors and demographics. Mental illness was common in our sample: 42% reported they had a current self-diagnosed condition, a majority of whom had received it from a health professional. Unsurprisingly, the strongest predictor of reporting a diagnosis was experiencing relatively severe distress. The second most important factor after distress was having a broad concept of mental illness. When their levels of distress were the same, people with broad concepts were substantially more likely to report a current diagnosis. The graph below illustrates this effect. It divides the sample by levels of distress and shows the proportion of people at each level who report a current diagnosis. People with broad concepts of mental illness (the highest quarter of the sample) are represented by the dark blue line. People with narrow concepts of mental illness (the lowest quarter of the sample) are represented by the light blue line. People with broad concepts were much more likely to report having a mental illness, especially when their distress was relatively high. People with greater mental health literacy and less stigmatising attitudes were also more likely to report a diagnosis. Two interesting further findings emerged from our study. People who self-diagnosed but had not received a professional diagnosis tended to have broader illness concepts than those who had. In addition, younger and politically progressive people were more likely to report a diagnosis, consistent with some <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560321000438">previous research</a>, and held broader concepts of mental illness. Their tendency to hold these more expansive concepts partially explained their higher rates of diagnosis. <h2>Why does it matter?</h2> Our findings support the idea that expansive concepts of mental illness promote self-diagnosis and may thereby increase the apparent prevalence of mental ill health. People who have a lower threshold for defining distress as a disorder are more likely to identify themselves as having a mental illness. Our findings do not directly show that people with broad concepts over-diagnose or those with narrow concepts under-diagnose. Nor do they prove that having broad concepts causes self-diagnosis or results in actual increases in mental illness. Nevertheless, the findings raise important concerns. First, they suggest that rising mental health awareness may <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg25934573-900-why-being-more-open-about-mental-health-could-be-making-us-feel-worse/">come at a cost</a>. In addition to boosting mental health literacy it may increase the likelihood of people incorrectly identifying their problems as pathologies. Inappropriate self-diagnosis can have adverse effects. Diagnostic labels may become identity-defining and self-limiting, as people come to believe their problems are enduring, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165032724002489?via%3Dihub">hard-to-control</a> aspects of who they are. Second, unwarranted self-diagnosis may lead people experiencing relatively mild levels of distress to seek help that is unnecessary, inappropriate and ineffective. Recent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37844607/">Australian research</a> found people with relatively mild distress who received psychotherapy worsened more often than they improved. Third, these effects may be particularly problematic for young people. They are most liable to hold broad concepts of mental illness, in part due to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010440X22000682?via%3Dihub">social media</a> <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10810730.2023.2235563">consumption</a>, and they experience mental ill health at relatively high and rising rates. Whether expansive concepts of illness play a role in the youth mental health crisis remains to be seen. Ongoing cultural shifts are fostering increasingly expansive definitions of mental illness. These shifts are likely to have mixed blessings. By normalising mental illness they may help to remove its stigma. However, by pathologising some forms of everyday distress, they may have an unintended downside. As we wrestle with the mental health crisis, it is crucial we find ways to increase awareness of mental ill health without inadvertently inflating it.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/231687/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jesse-tse-1429151">Jesse Tse</a>, PhD Candidate at Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/nick-haslam-10182">Nick Haslam</a>, Professor of Psychology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/do-you-have-a-mental-illness-why-some-people-answer-yes-even-if-they-havent-been-diagnosed-231687">original article</a>.

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