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Lie detection tests have worked the same way for 3,000 years – and they’re still hopelessly inaccurate

Popular culture is fascinated with the ability to detect liars. Lie detector tests are a staple of police dramas, and TV shows such as Poker Face feature “human polygraphs” who detect deception by picking up tell-tale signs in people’s behaviour. Records of attempts to detect lies, whether by technical means or by skilled observers, go back at least 3,000 years. Forensic science lie detection techniques have become <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1541-1338.2005.00166.x">increasingly popular</a> since the invention of the polygraph early in the 20th century, with the latest methods involving advanced brain imaging. Proponents of lie detection technology sometimes <a href="https://www.press.umich.edu/3091709/lying_brain">make grandiose claims</a>, such as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-022-09566-y">recent paper</a> that said “with the help of forensic science and its new techniques, crimes can be easily solved”. Despite these claims, an infallible lie detection method has yet to be found. In fact, most lie detection methods don’t detect lies at all – instead, they register the physiological or behaviour signs of stress or fear. <h2>From dry rice to red-hot irons</h2> The <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1529100610390861">earliest recorded lie detection method</a> was used in China, around 1000 BC. It involved suspects placing rice in their mouths then spitting it out: wet rice indicated innocence, while dry rice meant guilty. In India, around 900 BC, <a href="http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2844&context=jclc">one method</a> used to detect poisoners was observations of shaking. In ancient Greece a rapid pulse rate was taken to indicate deceit. The Middle Ages saw barbaric forms of lie detection used in Europe, such as the red-hot iron method which involved suspected criminals placing their tongue, often multiple times, on a red-hot iron. Here, a burnt tongue indicated guilt. <h2>What the polygraph measures</h2> Historical lie detection methods were based in superstition or religion. However, in the early 20th century a purportedly scientific, objective, lie detection machine was invented: the polygraph. The <a href="https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/228091.pdf">polygraph measures</a> a person’s respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and skin conductance (sweating) during questioning. Usually a “control question” about a crime is asked, such as “Did you do it?” The person’s response to the control question is then compared to responses to neutral or less provocative questions. Heightened reactions to direct crime questions are taken to indicate guilt on the test. <h2>The overconfidence of law enforcers</h2> Some law enforcement experts claim they don’t even need a polygraph. They can detect lies simply by observing the behaviour of a suspect during questioning. Worldwide research shows that law enforcers are often <a href="https://doi.org/10.5093/apj2022a4">confident they can detect lying</a>. Many assume a suspect’s nonverbal behaviour reveals deceit. A <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/14636641111134314/full/html">2011 study with Queensland police</a> revealed many officers were confident they could detect lying. Most favoured a focus on nonverbal behaviour even over available evidence. However, <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-96334-1_3">research shows</a> that law enforcers, despite their confidence, are often not very good at detecting lying. Law enforcement officers are not alone in thinking they can spot a liar. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022022105282295">Global studies</a> have found that people around the world believe lying is accompanied by specific nonverbal behaviours such as gaze aversion and nervousness. <h2>What’s really being tested</h2> Many historical and current lie detection methods seem underpinned by the plausible idea that liars will be nervous and display observable physical reactions. These might be shaking (such as in the ancient Indian test for poisoners, and the nonverbal behaviour method used by some investigators), a dry mouth (the rice-chewing test and the hot-iron method), increased pulse rate (the ancient Greek method and the modern polygraph), or overall heightened physiological reactions (the polygraph). However, there are two major problems with using behaviour based on fear or stress to detect lying. The first problem: how does one distinguish fearful innocents from fearful guilty people? It is likely that an innocent person accused of a crime will be fearful or anxious, while a guilty suspect may not be. This is borne out with the polygraph’s <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/10420/chapter/10#218">high false-positive rate</a>, meaning innocent people are deemed guilty. Similarly, some police have assumed that <a href="https://cqu-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/f/1rb43gr/TN_cdi_informaworld_taylorfrancisbooks_9781843926337">innocent, nervous suspects were guilty</a> based on inaccurate interpretations of behavioural observations. The second major problem with lie detection methods based on nervous behaviour is there is <a href="https://journals.copmadrid.org/apj/art/apj2019a9">no evidence</a> that specific nonverbal behaviours reliably accompany deception. <h2>Miscarriages of justice</h2> Despite what we know about the inaccuracy of polygraph tests, they haven’t gone away. In the US, they are still used in some police interrogations and <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/inside-polygraph-job-screening-black-mirror/">high-security job interviews</a>. In the UK, lie detector tests are used for <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/domestic-abuse-bill-2020-factsheets/mandatory-polygraph-tests-factsheet">some sex offenders on probation</a>. And in China, the use of polygraphs in law enforcement may <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031938414005964?via%3Dihub">even be increasing</a>. Australia has been less enthusiastic in adopting lie-detection machines. In New South Wales, the use of lie-detector findings was barred from court in 1983, and an attempt to present polygraph evidence to a court in Western Australia in 2003 <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1375/pplt.2004.11.2.359">also failed</a>. Many historical and current lie detection methods emulate each other and are based on the same assumptions. Often the <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/book/13865">only difference</a> is the which part of the body or physical reaction they focus on. Using fallible lie detection methods <a href="https://journals.copmadrid.org/apj/art/apj2022a4">contributes to wrongful convictions</a> and miscarriages of justice. Therefore, it is important that criminal-justice practitioners are educated about fallacious lie detection methods, and any new technique grounded in fear or stress-based reactions should be rejected. Despite outward appearances of technological advancement, over many millennia little has changed. Fearful innocents remain vulnerable to wrongful assumptions of guilt, which is good news for the fearless guilty. This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/lie-detection-tests-have-worked-the-same-way-for-3-000-years-and-theyre-still-hopelessly-inaccurate-200741" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>. Images: Getty

Technology

Can ideology-detecting algorithms catch online extremism before it takes hold?

Ideology has always been a critical element in understanding how we view the world, form opinions and make political decisions. However, the internet has revolutionised the way opinions and ideologies spread, leading to new forms of online radicalisation. Far-right ideologies, which advocate for ultra-nationalism, racism and opposition to immigration and multiculturalism, have proliferated on social platforms. These ideologies have strong links with violence and terrorism. In recent years, <a href="https://www.asio.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-02/ASIO_Annual_Report_2020-21.pdf">as much as 40%</a> of the caseload of the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) was related to far-right extremism. This has <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-02-13/right-wing-terror-threat-declines-says-asio/101965964">declined</a>, though, with the easing of COVID restrictions. Detecting online radicalisation early could help prevent far-right ideology-motivated (and potentially violent) activity. To this end, we have developed a <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2208.04097">completely automatic system</a> that can determine the ideology of social media users based on what they do online. <h2>How it works</h2> Our proposed pipeline is based on detecting the signals of ideology from people’s online behaviour. There is no way to directly observe a person’s ideology. However, researchers can observe “ideological proxies” such as the use of political hashtags, retweeting politicians and following political parties. But using ideological proxies requires a lot of work: you need experts to understand and label the relationships between proxies and ideology. This can be expensive and time-consuming. What’s more, online behaviour and contexts change between countries and social platforms. They also shift rapidly over time. This means even more work to keep your ideological proxies up to date and relevant. <h2>You are what you post</h2> Our pipeline simplifies this process and makes it automatic. It has two main components: a “media proxy”, which determines ideology via links to media, and an “inference architecture”, which helps us determine the ideology of people who don’t post links to media. The media proxy measures the ideological leaning of an account by tracking which media sites it posts links to. Posting links to Fox News would indicate someone is more likely to lean right, for example, while linking to the Guardian indicates a leftward tendency. To categorise the media sites users link to, we took the left-right ratings for a wide range of news sites from two datasets (though many are available). One was <a href="https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/our-research/digital-news-report-2018">based on a Reuters survey</a> and the other curated by experts at <a href="https://www.allsides.com/media-bias/ratings">Allsides.com</a>. This works well for people who post links to media sites. However, most people don’t do that very often. So what do we do about them? That’s where the inference architecture comes in. In our pipeline, we determine how ideologically similar people are to one another with three measures: the kind of language they use, the hashtags they use, and the other users whose content they reshare. Measuring similarity in hashtags and resharing is relatively straightforward, but such signals are not always available. Language use is the key: it is always present, and a known indicator of people’s latent psychological states. Using machine-learning techniques we found that people with different ideologies use different kinds of language. Right-leaning individuals tend to use moral language relating to vice (for example, harm, cheating, betrayal, subversion and degradation), as opposed to virtue (care, fairness, loyalty, authority and sanctity), more than left-leaning individuals. Far-right individuals use grievance language (involving violence, hate and paranoia) significantly more than moderates. By detecting these signals of ideology, our pipeline can identify and understand the psychological and social characteristics of extreme individuals and communities. <h2>What’s next?</h2> The ideology detection pipeline could be a crucial tool for understanding the spread of far-right ideologies and preventing violence and terrorism. By detecting signals of ideology from user behaviour online, the pipeline serves as an early warning systems for extreme ideology-motivated activity. It can provide law enforcement with methods to flag users for investigation and intervene before radicalisation takes hold. Image credits: Getty Images This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-ideology-detecting-algorithms-catch-online-extremism-before-it-takes-hold-200629" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>.

Technology

Detective steals thousands from elderly woman

An elderly woman who was scammed out of $30,000 in an online scam has once again been stolen from, after the police officer helping her recover the money stole her bank details. In May 2021, 74-year-old Sonia was robbed by fraudsters pretending to be NBN workers after they convinced her to transfer the hefty five-figure sum. After discovering it was a scam, Sonia then reported the crime to NSW Police, who sent a detective to her home to investigate. The officer was supposed to be helping Sonia recover her stolen money, but instead tried to use her credit card and banking details and purchase almost $20,000 worth of goods. The police officer fronted Liverpool Local Court on Wednesday where his barrister tried to explain his client's behaviour saying he had gone "off the rails" and fallen into a depression due to the nature of his work. In June 2021, the detective, who cannot be named, attended Sonia's home several times to investigate what happened, often wearing his full police uniform. To gain her sympathy, he said he had a brain aneurysm and had not yet told his girlfriend or work. According to police documents tendered to the court, Sonia trusted him and he told her she "reminded him of his own grandmother", the <a href="https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/truecrimeaustralia/police-courts-nsw/detective-investigating-30k-fraud-on-74yo-woman-steals-her-credit-card-for-16k-shopping-spree/news-story/1823067b8a55dc184f1278ce6a933b69" target="_blank" rel="nofollow noopener">Daily Telegraph</a> reported. When he asked to see her online banking details, credit cards and passwords, Sonia gave them to him willingly, assuming they were needed for his investigation. The detective tried to buy close to $20,000 worth of items from JB Hi Fi, Big W and Myer, including iPhones, GoPro cameras and Apple Watches. Thankfully for Sonia, none of the attempted purchases went through, as they were all rejected by Sonia's bank as suspicious activity. When Sonia was notified of the attempted transactions, she immediately suspected the detective who had been supposed to be helping her. In court this week, the now former detective pleaded guilty to stealing Sonia's bank details, and will will face Downing Centre District Court in Sydney on May 12th when he will be sentenced. More than 18 months after the events, Sonia is still very troubled by what happened and blames herself. "I can't switch off a feeling that I was stupid in the first place ... I trusted this guy and then he did that," she said. Image credits: Getty Images

Legal

Is my RAT actually working? How to tell if your COVID test can detect Omicron

You’ve tested negative for COVID using a rapid antigen test (RAT), but are a close contact of a positive family member and have symptoms. So you might be wondering if you’re really COVID-negative or if the test is working as well as it should. There are many reasons why your RAT may not give you <a href="https://theconversation.com/15-things-not-to-do-when-using-a-rapid-antigen-test-from-storing-in-the-freezer-to-sampling-snot-176364">the results</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/my-rats-are-negative-but-i-still-think-i-might-have-covid-should-i-get-a-pcr-test-194527">you expect</a>. But one factor is whether RATs can detect the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID). We know the virus has mutated during the pandemic. So health authorities and researchers are investigating whether RATs can still detect the <a href="https://www.who.int/activities/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants">more recent versions</a> of the virus. The good news is, based on the <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-10/post-market-review-of-antigen-and-rapid-antigen-tests-table.pdf">limited data released</a>, all RATs meant for use at home in Australia that have been independently tested so far seem to be able to detect Omicron. The bad news is that not all RATs have been independently tested yet. Yours might be one of those. <h2>What do mutations have to do with RATs?</h2> RATs diagnose COVID infection by detecting specific viral proteins. So there are concerns that as the virus evolves and produces altered viral proteins, this may affect the tests’ ability to diagnose COVID as well as they detected previous variants. Whether RATs can adequately detect Omicron has been raised by authorities and researchers in various countries including <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/378/bmj-2022-071215">The Netherlands</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35458384/">Belgium</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36339133/">Chile</a>, as well as Australia. One <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/jcm.01097-22">Australian study</a> tested six RATs on Delta, and Omicron lineages BA.4, BA.5 and BA.2.75. The researchers found the kits performed equally well across the different samples at higher viral loads (higher concentrations of the virus), although one kit’s overall sensitivity fell below minimum sensitivity requirements. However, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36339133/">some international studies</a> have found RATs are less able to detect Omicron, particularly when <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36339133/">viral loads are lower</a>. <h2>So what’s the case in Australia?</h2> Australia’s regulator, the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA), initially relied on <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/products/covid-19/covid-19-tests/post-market-review-antigen-and-rapid-antigen-tests">test data</a> provided by RAT manufacturers to determine the test kit met World Health Organization <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/technical-specifications-for-selection-of-essential-in-vitro-diagnostics-for-sars-cov-2">standards</a> for acceptable sensitivity (ability to detect a positive case). The TGA also requires manufacturers to send updated test data as new variants arise to demonstrate their test still meets those WHO standards. But the TGA has also commissioned <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/products/covid-19/covid-19-tests/post-market-review-antigen-and-rapid-antigen-tests">independent testing of RATs</a> to verify how well they detect the more recent COVID variants. They are tested for their ability to detect the wild-type virus (the original strain), the Delta variant, and the Omicron variant. The TGA does not state which specific lineages (descendents) of Omicron are included in the testing. As it completes its analysis on individual tests (or groups of tests), the TGA reports them in a <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-10/post-market-review-of-antigen-and-rapid-antigen-tests-table.pdf">table that’s publicly available</a>, which will be updated as more data come in. <h2>What does the table tell us?</h2> You can look up the brand name, manufacturer and batch number of the RAT you have at home. Look for those labelled “self-tests” (more on the different types of tests and their results later). The most important columns in the table are those that indicate whether the kit passed its independent validation. Look for four ticks to indicate the kit meets minimum standards for detecting the original virus, Delta and Omicron variants, and has passed the quality test. A cross indicates is has not passed that component of the validation. Haven’t found a result for your RAT? If a product comes in two versions – a self-test and a type of test used in health-care facilities known as a point-of-care test (POCT in the table) – only one may be tested. If that’s the case, the symbol † means testing was only done on one version and you can use those results for your test. Look for a matching registration number to make sure you’re comparing like with like. The final column indicates what type of data the manufacturer has provided. Some manufacturers have tested the sensitivity of their kits for Omicron lineages BA.4 and BA.5. <h2>What does the table not tell us?</h2> Just because your test has no ticks or crosses against it, this doesn’t mean it can’t detect Omicron. It could be that the independent validation has yet to be completed or uploaded to the table. So the jury is out. The table also does not tell us what lineages of Omicron were tested for, although in some cases the manufacturer has supplied clinical test data. The table data were only current as of October. Seeing as the number of cases of sub-variant infections <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-can-we-expect-from-this-latest-covid-wave-and-how-long-is-it-likely-to-last-194444">has risen since then</a>, so we don’t really know if that is impacting on the sensitivity of even those tests that have recently been validated. <h2>I’ve grappled with the table, now what?</h2> If your brand of RAT has the ticks, particularly for Omicron, it has been assessed has having an acceptable sensitivity. If you are buying a RAT, check the table to see if that brand has been tested for sensitivity to the Omicron variant. If your test has been sitting in a cupboard for months, check the expiry date before you use it. Also consider whether it has been stored at the correct temperature during that time (the instruction leaflet will tell you what that is). Image credits: Getty Images This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-my-rat-actually-working-how-to-tell-if-your-covid-test-can-detect-omicron-196210" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>.

Body

Urine sample test: new way to detect and screen for early stages of Alzheimer’s disease

When it comes to <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/alzheimers-peer-review/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s disease</a>, an early diagnosis – one made well before signs of irreversible dementia are apparent – is key to providing effective intervention and treatment. Now early detection might be as simple as a urine test, allowing for wide-scale and early screening across large populations of the elderly. A collaboration of researchers in China investigated urine samples for biomarkers from a large group of patients with varying severity of Alzheimer’s disease, comparing them with healthy controls. A compound known as <a href="https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/molecule-of-the-week/archive/f/formic-acid.html?cid=home_motw" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">formic acid</a> (which is also produced by some ant and bee species) was a particularly sensitive marker for cognitive decline associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Significant increases in urinary formic acid levels were found in all samples from Alzheimer’s sufferers (including those with only early-stage subjective cognitive decline) as compared with those from the healthy controls. “Alzheimer’s disease is a continuous and concealed chronic disease, meaning that it can develop and last for many years before obvious cognitive impairment emerges,” say the authors. “The early stages of the disease occur before the irreversible dementia stage, and this is the golden window for intervention and treatment.” When blood samples of the participants were analysed for Alzheimer’s biomarkers in combination with the urinary formic acid level, the researchers were able to predict to what stage of the disease the patient had progressed. Their report is in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2022.1046066/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ageing</a>. Other methods currently used to diagnose Alzheimer’s disease, such as positron emission tomography brain scans, <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/medicine/alzheimers-blood-test-developed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive blood draws</a> and lumbar punctures, tend to be costly and invasive. Although other urinary biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease have been found, none have been able to detect the disease at its earliest stages. The links between urinary formic acid and Alzheimer’s disease are still not fully understood, but this research is an important step towards developing tools to diagnose and treat this debilitating condition amongst a vulnerable group in society. “Urinary formic acid showed an excellent sensitivity for early Alzheimer’s screening,” said the authors. “The detection of urine biomarkers of Alzheimer’s is convenient and cost-effective, and it should be performed during routine physical examinations of the elderly.” <img id="cosmos-post-tracker" style="opacity: 0; height: 1px!important; width: 1px!important; border: 0!important; position: absolute!important; z-index: -1!important;" src="https://syndication.cosmosmagazine.com/?id=227116&title=Urine+sample+test%3A+new+way+to+detect+and+screen+for+early+stages+of+Alzheimer%E2%80%99s+disease" width="1" height="1" data-spai-target="src" data-spai-orig="" data-spai-exclude="nocdn" /> <div id="contributors"> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/urine-new-way-detect-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">This article</a> was originally published on Cosmos Magazine and was written by Clare Kenyon. Image: Getty Images </div>

Mind

Astronomers have detected another ‘planet killer’ asteroid. Could we miss one coming our way?

If you surfed the web this morning, you may have seen news of the latest existential threat to humanity: a “planet killer” asteroid named 2022 AP7. Luckily for us 2022 AP7 “has no chance to hit the Earth currently”, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/nov/01/huge-planet-killer-asteroid-discovered-and-its-heading-our-way">according</a> to Scott Sheppard at the Carnegie Institution for Science. He and his international team of colleagues <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/ac8cff/pdf">observed 2022 AP7</a> in a trio of “rather large” asteroids obscured by the Sun’s glare (the other two don’t pose a risk). 2022 AP7 orbits the Sun every five years, and currently crosses Earth’s orbit when Earth is on the other side of the Sun to it. Eventually its movement will sync with Earth’s and it will cross much closer by, but this will be centuries into the future. We simply don’t know enough about 2022 AP7 to precisely predict the danger it may pose centuries from now. At the same time, we suspect there could be other “planet killers” out there yet to be discovered. But how many? And what’s being done to find them? What makes a planet killer? Asteroid 2022 AP7 is the largest potentially hazardous asteroid (PHA) found in eight years, with a diameter between 1.1km and 2.3km. For context, an asteroid with a diameter more than 1km is enough to trigger a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event">mass extinction event</a> on Earth. As well as having a diameter greater than 1km, an asteroid also needs to have an orbit that crosses Earth’s to be considered potentially dangerous. In the case of 2022 AP7, any threat is centuries down the track. The important point is it has been detected and can now be tracked. This is the best possible outcome. It is estimated we’ve already <a href="https://theconversation.com/in-a-world-first-nasas-dart-mission-is-about-to-smash-into-an-asteroid-what-will-we-learn-189391">discovered</a> about 95% of potentially hazardous asteroids, and that there are fewer than 1,000 of these. The work of Sheppard and colleagues highlights that hunting down the remaining 5% – some 50 asteroids – will be a massive effort. <figure class="align-center "><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492923/original/file-20221102-25180-74aqvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492923/original/file-20221102-25180-74aqvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492923/original/file-20221102-25180-74aqvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492923/original/file-20221102-25180-74aqvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492923/original/file-20221102-25180-74aqvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492923/original/file-20221102-25180-74aqvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492923/original/file-20221102-25180-74aqvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="" /><figcaption>Statistically, there’s less of a chance of a larger asteroid colliding with Earth compared to a smaller one. NASA</figcaption></figure> What constitutes a near miss? NASA <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/asteroid-watch">closely tracks</a> all known objects in the Solar System. But every now and again an object will catch us off guard. In 2021, we had a close call with an asteroid called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_UA1">2021 UA1</a>. It came only a few thousand kilometres from Earth, over the Antarctic. In cosmic terms, this is uncomfortably close. However, 2021 UA1 was only two metres across, and therefore posed no substantial risk. There are likely hundreds of millions of objects of this size in our Solar System, and it’s not uncommon for them to impact Earth. In these cases, most of the object burns up in the atmosphere and creates a spectacular light show, with little risk to life. In 2019 another <a href="https://theconversation.com/an-asteroid-just-buzzed-past-earth-and-we-barely-noticed-in-time-120972">asteroid</a> with a 100m diameter passed Earth some 70,000km away. It was publicly announced mere hours before it flew past. While it wasn’t as close, it was of a much more concerning size. These near misses reiterate how important it is for us to speed up the search for near-Earth objects. Blind spots The reason we haven’t already found every object that could one day pass nearby Earth is largely because of observational blind spots, and the fact we can’t observe all parts of the sky all the time. To find 2022 AP7, Sheppard and colleagues used a telescope at twilight soon after the Sun had set. They had to do this because they were looking for asteroids in the vicinity of Venus and Earth. Venus is currently on the <a href="https://theskylive.com/where-is-venus">other side of the Sun</a> to Earth. Making observations close to the Sun is difficult. The Sun’s glare overwhelms the weak light reflected off small asteroids – presenting a blind spot. But just before and after sunset, there’s a small window in which the Sun’s glare no longer blocks the view. Right now there are only about 25 asteroids known to have well-determined orbits that lie entirely within Earth’s orbit. More are likely to be discovered, and these may contribute significantly to the missing 5% of potentially hazardous asteroids. The Near-Earth Object Surveyor A recent NASA mission spectacularly demonstrated that humans can purposefully change the trajectory of an asteroid. NASA’s DART (<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/planetarydefense/dart/dart-news">Double Asteroid Redirection Test</a>) mission collided a vending-machine-sized spacecraft into a 160m diameter minor-planet moon called Dimorphos. <figure class="align-center "><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492925/original/file-20221102-28436-f16d5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492925/original/file-20221102-28436-f16d5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492925/original/file-20221102-28436-f16d5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492925/original/file-20221102-28436-f16d5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492925/original/file-20221102-28436-f16d5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492925/original/file-20221102-28436-f16d5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492925/original/file-20221102-28436-f16d5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="" /><figcaption>The DART spacecraft successfully collided with Dimorphos, which itself was orbiting a larger asteroid named Didymos. NASA/Johns Hopkins APL/Steve Gribben</figcaption></figure> The collision altered Dimorphos’s 12-hour orbital period by more than 30 minutes, and was declared a resounding success. So it’s plausible for humans to redirect a hazardous asteroid if we find one. That said, we’d have to find it well in advance. Potentially hazardous asteroids are much larger than Dimorphos, so a bigger collision would be required with plenty of lead time. To do this, NASA has plans to survey for potentially hazardous objects using a telescope in space. Its <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/near-earth-object-surveyor">Near-Earth Object (NEO) Surveyor</a>, scheduled to launch in 2026, will be able to survey the Solar System very efficiently – including within blind spots caused by the Sun. That’s because the glare we see while observing from Earth is caused by Earth’s atmosphere. But in space there’s no atmosphere to look through. <figure class="align-center "><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492932/original/file-20221102-26-zoxo13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492932/original/file-20221102-26-zoxo13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492932/original/file-20221102-26-zoxo13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492932/original/file-20221102-26-zoxo13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492932/original/file-20221102-26-zoxo13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492932/original/file-20221102-26-zoxo13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492932/original/file-20221102-26-zoxo13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="" /><figcaption>The NEO Surveyor spacecraft won’t have the issue of observational blind spots when hunting for asteroids. NASA/JPL/University of Arizona</figcaption></figure> It’s very likely the Near-Earth Object Surveyor will reveal new objects, and help us characterise a large number of objects to greatly improve our understanding of threats. The key is to find as many objects as possible, categorise them, track the risks, and plan a redirection mission as much in advance as possible. The fact that all of these elements of planetary defence are now a reality is an amazing feat of science and engineering. It is the first time in human history we have these capabilities.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193709/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> Writen by Steven Tingay. Republished with permission from <a href="https://theconversation.com/astronomers-have-detected-another-planet-killer-asteroid-could-we-miss-one-coming-our-way-193709" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>. Image: DOE/FNAL/DECam/CTIO/NOIRLab/NSF/AURA/J. da Silva/Spaceengine

Technology

COVID-19 virus-detecting mask can alert of exposure via your smartphone

Move over <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/covid/rise-of-rapid-antigen-testing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inaccurate RATs</a>. Get out of my nose and throat PCR swab tests. There’s a new method of COVID-19 detection and it’s wearable. A research team from Tongji University in China, has created a face mask that can detect COVID-19 (as well as other common respiratory viruses such as colds and influenza) and send an alert to your smartphone. The mask is highly sensitive, with the inbuilt sensor able to detect the virus <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/lets-clear-the-air-on-ventilation-cosmos-weekly-taster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in the air</a> after only ten minute’s exposure at extremely low concentrations – far less than produced by sneezing, coughing or talking. “Previous research has shown face mask wearing can reduce the risk of spreading and contracting the disease. So, we wanted to create a mask that can detect the presence of virus in the air and alert the wearer,” says Yin Fang, an author of the study and a material scientist at Shanghai Tongji University. <div class="newsletter-box"> <div id="wpcf7-f6-p214217-o1" class="wpcf7" dir="ltr" lang="en-US" role="form"> </div> </div> The sensor on the mask has tiny synthetic molecules – called ‘aptamers’ – which are able to be tweaked to detect proteins unique to specific pathogens, such as SARS-Cov-2, H5N1 (colloquially known as ‘bird flu’) and H1N1 (‘swine flu’). Once the aptamer detects the virus, the sensor amplifies the signal via a specialised component known as an <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344400852_Ion-Gated_Transistor_An_Enabler_for_Sensing_and_Computing_Integration" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ion-gate transistor</a> (which is highly sensitive and able to detect very low voltage signals) and sends an alert to the user’s phone. “Our mask would work really well in spaces with poor ventilation, such as elevators or enclosed rooms, where the <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/covid-ventilation-standards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">risk of getting infected is high</a>,” Fang says. The device is also highly customisable and can be swiftly modified to detect new and emerging threats. This is not the first time <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/smart-masks-to-detect-covid-19/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">‘smart masks’ have been created</a> to detect COVID-19, but what sets these devices apart is their sensitivity and ‘tunability’ to different viruses. The team is working on reducing the detection time and increasing the sensitivity of their devices. In the future, they hope the technology could be expanded to further applications and wearables for other conditions such as cancers and heart diseases. “Currently, doctors have been relying heavily on their experiences in diagnosing and treating diseases. But with richer data collected by wearable devices, disease diagnosis and treatment can become more precise,” Fang says. <img id="cosmos-post-tracker" style="opacity: 0; height: 1px!important; width: 1px!important; border: 0!important; position: absolute!important; z-index: -1!important;" src="https://syndication.cosmosmagazine.com/?id=214217&title=COVID-19+virus-detecting+mask+can+alert+of+exposure+via+your+smartphone" width="1" height="1" /> <div id="contributors"> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/covid-19-detecting-mask-smartphone/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">This article</a> was originally published on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cosmos Magazine</a> and was written by <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/contributor/clare-kenyon" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Clare Kenyon</a>. Clare Kenyon is a science journalist for Cosmos. An ex-high school teacher, she is currently wrangling the death throes of her PhD in astrophysics, has a Masters in astronomy and another in education. Clare also has diplomas in music and criminology and a graduate certificate of leadership and learning. Image: Getty Images </div>

Technology

Saliva test could detect breast cancer

A saliva test could soon be used to help identify if women will be diagnosed with breast cancer, according to a study. The study was led by Professor Gareth Evans from Manchester University who sampled the saliva of 2,500 women. A decade later, the women were presented again and the research showed that 644 were diagnosed with breast cancer. “If all these women took drugs to prevent breast cancer, that could prevent a quarter of breast cancer cases and potentially save the lives of 2,000 women a year,” he said. “If young women at high risk were offered annual mammograms, that could save hundreds more a year. “It is particularly important for women under 50, who make up one in five cases of breast cancer.” Breast cancer is cancer that starts in the breast tissue and occurs when abnormal cells in the breast grow in an uncontrolled way. It can develop at any age and is more common in women but also affects a small number of men each year. “Breast cancer can be an incredibly difficult and personal journey for women,” Professor Evans said. “We know that genetics plays a major role in determining whether women are at higher or lower risk of the disease, alongside more ‘traditional’ risk factors.” Image: Shutterstock

Body

Detecting skin cancer with a blood test

A team of US researchers have found a way to diagnose skin cancer using blood tests. The researchers have shown in a lab-based study that melanoma cells can be detected in blood and plasma. If the test makes it through clinical trials, the researchers hope that it could one day be used to sidestep the invasive biopsies that are currently required to diagnose melanoma. The test uses melanoma-specific antibodies, and a device designed specifically to react them with blood. The device is called MelanoBean, and it works with microfluidics: manipulating tiny amounts of fluid to do interesting things that they don’t do in larger volumes. The test is described in a <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/anbr.202100083" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paper</a> in Advanced NanoBiomed Research. <div class="newsletter-box"> <div id="wpcf7-f6-p188890-o1" class="wpcf7" dir="ltr" lang="en-US" role="form"> </div> </div> “This is the first comprehensive study of circulating tumour cells – or CTCs – to evaluate the efficacy of surgery using microfluidic systems in melanoma, including changes in the number of CTCs, CTC cluster configuration, and gene expression profiling,” says first author Dr Yoon-Tae Kang, a researcher at the University of Michigan, US. The researchers found that with their test, melanoma cells (CTCs) could be found in the blood of cancer patients at all stages of the disease – I through to IV. It could also identify whether any CTCs were hanging around in the blood of patients who’d had skin cancer surgery to get their cells removed. “CTCs have the potential to pinpoint treatment resistance and recurrence, and can be a valuable biomarker to non-invasively monitor for disease progression,” says corresponding author Dr Sunitha Nagrath also from the University of Michican. <img id="cosmos-post-tracker" style="opacity: 0; height: 1px!important; width: 1px!important; border: 0!important; position: absolute!important; z-index: -1!important;" src="https://syndication.cosmosmagazine.com/?id=188890&title=Detecting+skin+cancer+with+a+blood+test" width="1" height="1" data-spai-target="src" data-spai-orig="" data-spai-exclude="nocdn" /> <div id="contributors"> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/medicine/detecting-skin-cancer-blood-test/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">This article</a> was originally published on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cosmos Magazine</a> and was written by <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/contributor/ellen-phiddian" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Ellen Phiddian</a>. Ellen Phiddian is a science journalist at Cosmos. She has a BSc (Honours) in chemistry and science communication, and an MSc in science communication, both from the Australian National University. Image: Getty Images </div>

Body

How to detect cancer with oranges

<div class="copy"> <h2>Cancer detection breakthrough</h2> Have your <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/chemistry/lab-based-grapefruit-compound-could-have-huge-commercial-future/" target="_blank">oranges</a> gone bad? No need to throw them in the bin because University of Sydney PhD student Pooria Lesani has developed a cancer detection technique made from the juice of rancid oranges. In a <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1385894721052426?via%3Dihub" target="_blank">study</a>, published in Chemical Engineering Journal, Lesani described the orange-based, low-cost probe, which proved to be a useful nanobiosensor for screening cells that may be at risk of cancer. The nanobiosenser is a tiny probe that “glows” fluorescently in human cells, and signals if those cells become acidic, indicating that cancer is not far off. This shows which cells are at greatest risk of cancer, so preventative measures can be taken. <div style="position: relative; display: block; max-width: 100%;"> <div style="padding-top: 56.25%;"><iframe style="position: absolute; top: 0px; right: 0px; bottom: 0px; left: 0px; width: 100%; height: 100%;" src="https://players.brightcove.net/5483960636001/HJH3i8Guf_default/index.html?videoId=6285714810001" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></div> </div> Nanobiosensors localising inside cells. Credit: Pooria Lesani. “Many diseases start developing over many years – and even decades – before a person shows even the slightest of symptoms. With many diseases such as Alzheimer’s, once there are symptoms, it is too late to treat them,” says Lesani. “Our device allows for a more accurate disease diagnosis before the onset of symptoms, as well as enabling the early detection of serious diseases associated with pH fluctuations. “We hope this could lead to the early treatment and prevention of serious disease. Current testing methods can be complex, expensive and time-consuming, whereas our nanobiosensor can easily be produced on a large scale at low cost.” <h2>Acidic cells and how oranges detect cancer</h2> Rotten oranges were the key ingredient in the nanobiosensor and were integral for making fluorescent carbon dots – tiny blobs of carbon that are just one-billionth of a metre in length. “The process for making these carbon dots for the nanobiosensor is similar to making a meal in a pressure cooker,” says Lesani. “We throw all the ingredients together – in this instance rancid orange juice and some water – into a reactor which somewhat resembles a pressure cooker, tightly close the lid, and place it in a scientific oven heated to around 200℃. “The increased temperature and pressure inside the reactor break down the initial molecular structure of the ingredients, helping them form a new material: carbon dots. These dots are then used to build the nanobiosensor.” To use the biosensor, a small tissue biopsy is taken from a patient and put in a petri dish. The biosensor is applied to the cells and examined under a fluorescent microscope, which picks up tiny changes in light. Oranges are also high in ascorbic acid, which improves the function of the sensor. If the cells are healthy, the biosensor shines brightly, but if the cells are more on the acidic side the light dulls and indicates the cells may be precancerous. <h2>Super quick cancer detection</h2> This doesn’t take very long and provides quick, accurate results. “Dramatic fluctuations in the acidity of cells can lead to inappropriate cell function, growth and division, and can lead to serious diseases ” says Lesani. “We have developed a sensitive and cost-effective nanobiosensor for real-time measuring of the degree of acidity of the cells. “This nanobiosensor can also help us to gain a better understanding of how these diseases develop.” The new technique also has the added benefit of diverting food waste from landfill. Image credits: Getty Images</div> <div id="contributors"> This article was originally published on <a rel="noopener" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/medicine/cancer-detection-with-oranges/" target="_blank">cosmosmagazine.com</a> and was written by Deborah Devis. </div>

Body

Former William Tyrrell lead detective under fire

Former detective Gary Jubelin has broken his silence after criticism arose on the previous handling of the William Tyrrell case. Jubelin, who was the lead the investigation into William's disappearance when he first went missing in 2014, spoke to Ben Fordham on 2GB to clear his name from recent criticism of the case. Gary who has since left the NSW Police, felt compelled to come forward after Commissioner Mick Fuller said this week the Tyrrell investigation had been left in "a bit of a mess". Gary Jubelin claimed there was not "one ounce" of criticism against him during his handling of the case, and explained that he followed all proceedings and filed regular update reports that were passed up the chain of command. However, the recent criticism of the case motivated him to speak out. "When there's criticism that came out, that came out from the Commissioner, that we were chasing people who proved to be not suspects - what really frustrates me about that is the lack of understanding of what a homicide investigation is," Mr Jubelin said. "You've got to investigate everyone." He went on to say he supports police efforts as the investigation remains on going and new searches are underway. "I'm not being critical of the police, I encourage the police. If they've got a line of inquiry, I challenge them to follow it up to the nth degree." William Tyrrell's foster mother was recently named a person of interest in the boy's disappearance, as police continue their search efforts around the town of Kendall where the three-year-old disappeared seven years ago. Image credits: Getty Images / NSW Police - PR Image

News

Which crimes are most frequently detected in Australia?

The common populist phrase ‘if you do the crime, you should do the time’ suggests that those who commit criminal offences should be caught and prosecuted – regardless of how trivial or outdated the offence may be, or how futile or costly it is to put this ‘zero tolerance’ approach into practice. An example of an offence which many consider unjustifiably costly and futile to prosecute is <a href="https://www.sydneycriminallawyers.com.au/criminal/offences/drug-offences/drug-possession/">the crime of drug possession</a> – whereby ‘zero tolerance’ policing has done nothing to deter would-be offenders, has cost billions of dollars to enforce, and has led to a range of other socially undesirable consequences, including the stigmatisation of drug users, the reluctance of those whose use detrimentally affects their lives to seek medical help and a thriving black market with all the associated violence and health risks – including the dangers of low-grade drugs that contain potentially deadly fillers. But what are the most frequently detected crimes in Australia? And which offences tend to go unreported and undetected? The most frequently detected offences <a href="https://www.crimestats.aic.gov.au/facts_figures/2_offenders/">National statistics</a> suggest that the most frequently detected offence-types in the year 2016/17 were: 1. Drug offences – 81,160 2. Acts intended to cause injury – 78,421 3. Theft – 78,093 4. Public order offences – 61,198 This does not necessarily mean that these are the most common offences committed, just that they are the most frequently detected. In fact, there is research to suggest that certain driving offences such as <a href="http://www.sydneycriminallawyers.com.au/traffic/offences/drink-driving/">drink driving</a> or negligent driving (eg failing to keep a proper lookout for pedestrians or other motorists) may be more common that all of those above, but they are less likely to be detected. A factor in detection rates is also that many assault offences – which come under acts intended to cause injury – <a href="https://aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi409">are committed in view of the public</a>; a situation where police are most likely to be called. A factor relating to the detection of drug offences is the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0955395918300756">pro-active detection policy of police</a>; which is signified by the heavy presence of police and drug detection dogs at music festivals and other venues. So as statistics can be skewed by a range of factors, the statistics on detection should not be equated with prevalence of offending. Hidden crimes Many types of crime go unreported to police which makes it difficult to estimate their prevalence or to identify perpetrators. There are many reasons why someone may not want to report a crime to police including a belief that they won’t be taken seriously, a reluctance to dob in a friend or relative or concerns about re-victimisation either by the criminal justice system itself. <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4530.0~2016-17~Main%20Features~Sexual%20assault~10004">Victimisation surveys</a> attempt to bridge the gap between reported crime and the actual rate in the community. These surveys find that the rate under-reporting depends a lot of the type of crime committed. Whilst 90% of motor vehicle thefts are reported to police, only 39% of sexual assaults are reported. Under-reporting of sexual assault has been well documented globally. The reasons for under-reporting <a href="https://aic.gov.au/sites/default/files/publications/non-reporting-and-hidden-recording-of-sexual-assault-an-international-literature-review.pdf?v=1509677779">differ between surveys</a> but include wishing to deal with matters privately, feelings of shame and embarrassment and fear of not being believed by police. Some advocates point to low rates of convictions as being a cause of reluctance by sexual assault victims. In Australia, only 1 in 6 reports to police of rape and less than 1 in 7 reports of incest or sexual penetration of a child <a href="http://www.lawreform.vic.gov.au/projects/sexual-offences/sexual-offences-final-report">result in prosecution</a>. Other offences with low detection rates Physical assaults have notably low reporting rates, with only about half of such incidents being reported to police, usually because the victims view the crime as trivial or not worth reporting. Domestic violence is noted as being one of the most underreported categories of crime globally. Domestic violence under-reporting is driven by a number of complex <a href="http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/134467/1/Content.pdf">factors</a> from financial or familial dependence to normalisation of violence and self-blaming. Moreover, vulnerable communities such as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, as well as sex workers, are known to under report crimes due to a general distrust of police and the criminal justice system. Unsolved crimes Even when crimes are detected by, or reported to police, identifying offenders can be difficult if certain barriers to investigation exist. There are no independent national statistics on the number of unsolved crimes in Australia. But, generally, the data indicates that a large number of reported crimes go unsolved, particularly property crime and theft. A lack of (cooperative) eye-witnesses or CCTV footage of a crime, very little physical evidence and little connection between perpetrator and victim are all common factors likely to mean a crime goes unsolved. An <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.569.1433&rep=rep1&type=pdf">analysis</a> of ‘solvability factors’ for homicide in Australia undertaken in 2001 found that unsolved homicides were more likely to involve a single victim, to have involved the use of a firearm and to have occurred in a non-residential area. Police factors in unsolved homicides included failures by police to rapidly secure a crime scene and a lack ample resources devoted to the investigation. Generally, crimes committed between strangers are difficult to solve, particularly if there is no clear motive that can narrow down potential suspects. Finally, perpetrators that have no prior criminal record are less likely to come to the attention of investigators making it less likely for them to be identified. So, not all crimes are equal when it comes to being caught. Written by Ugur Nedim and Jarryd Bartle. Republished with permission of <a href="https://www.sydneycriminallawyers.com.au/blog/which-crimes-are-most-frequently-detected-in-australia/">Sydney Criminal Lawyers.</a>

Legal

How do magpies detect worms and other food underground?

How do magpies detect worms and other food sources underground? I often see them look or listen, then rapidly hop across the ground and start digging with their beak and extract a worm or bug from the earth – Catherine, age 10, Perth. You have posed a very good question. Foraging for food can involve sight, hearing and even smell. In almost all cases learning is involved. Magpies are ground foragers, setting one foot before the other looking for food while walking, called <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7677/" title="Biology and Behaviour of an Unusual Songbird">walk-foraging</a>. It looks like this: Finding food on the ground, such as beetles and other insects, is not as easy as it may sound. The ground can be uneven and covered with leaves, grasses and rocks. Insects may be hiding, camouflaged, or staying so still it is hard for a magpie to notice them. Detecting a small object on the ground requires keen vision and experience, to discriminate between the parts that are important and those that are not. Magpie eyes, as for most birds, are on the side of the head (humans and other birds of prey, by contrast, have eyes that face forward). <a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305806/original/file-20191209-90592-eed4d5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305806/original/file-20191209-90592-eed4d5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" alt="" /></a> A magpie’s eyes are at the side of its head and it can only see something with both eyes if that is straight in front of the bird. Shutterstock/Webb Photography To see a small area in front of them, close to the ground, birds use both eyes together (scientists call this binocular vision). But birds mostly see via the eyes looking out to the side (which is called monocular vision). This picture gives you an idea of what a magpie can see with its left eye, what it can see with its right eye and what area it can see with both eyes working together (binocular vision). You asked about underground foraging. Some of that foraging can also be done by sight. Worms, for instance, may leave a small mound (called a cast) on the surface and, to the experienced bird, this indicates that a worm is just below. Magpies can also go a huge step further. They can identify big scarab larvae underground without any visual help at all. Scarab larvae look like grubs. They munch on grassroots and can kill entire grazing fields. Once they transform into beetles (commonly called Christmas beetles) they can do even more damage by eating all the leaves off eucalyptus trees. Here is the secret: magpies have such good hearing, they can hear the very faint sound of grass roots being chewed. We know this from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347281801121" title="Localization of soil dwelling scarab larvae by the black-backed magpie, Gymnorhina tibicen (Latham)">experiments</a> using small speakers under the soil playing back recorded sounds of scarab beetle larvae. Magpies located the speaker every time and dug it up.<a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" class="license"></a> So how do they do it? Several movements are involved. To make certain that a jab with its beak will hit the exact spot where the juicy grub is, the magpie first walks slowly and scans the ground. It then stops and looks closely at the ground – seemingly with both eyes working together. Then, holding absolutely still, the magpie turns its head so the left side of the head and ear is close to the ground for a final confirming <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318003665_Audition_and_Hemispheric_Specialization_in_Songbirds_and_New_Evidence_from_Australian_Magpies">listen</a>. Finally, the bird straightens up, then executes a powerful jab into the ground before retrieving the grub. <a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305292/original/file-20191205-70133-1fvy04l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305292/original/file-20191205-70133-1fvy04l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" alt="" /></a> An Australian magpie digging for food gets a grub. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Australian_Magpie_Digging_Grub.jpg" class="source">Wikimedia/Toby Hudson</a>, <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/" class="license">CC BY-SA</a> That is very clever of the magpies. Very few animals can extract food they can’t see. Only great apes and humans were thought to have this ability. Clever magpies indeed. And farmers love them for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347281801121" title="Localization of soil dwelling scarab larvae by the black-backed magpie, Gymnorhina tibicen (Latham)">keeping a major pest under control</a>. <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/gisela-kaplan-2401">Gisela Kaplan</a>, Emeritus Professor in Animal Behaviour, <a href="http://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-new-england-919">University of New England</a> This article is republished from <a href="http://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-do-magpies-detect-worms-and-other-food-underground-125713">original article</a>.

Caring

The finger trick that could help detect lung cancer

An expert has revealed a simple “finger trick” that could help uncover respiratory tumours. According to <a href="https://au.lifestyle.yahoo.com/finger-trick-that-could-diagnose-lung-cancer-201753189.html">Bupa UK</a>’s oncology nurse advisor Emma Norton, people can do this by bringing the nails of their index fingers together as if making the top of the heart. A diamond-shaped gap should be visible between the nails, Norton said. If this is missing, it could be a sign of finger clubbing or a deformity of the fingers and fingernails, which may indicate serious diseases such as lung cancer. The symptom occurs in 35 percent of people with lung cancer, according to <a href="https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/mesothelioma/symptoms/finger-clubbing">Cancer Research UK</a>. <iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/post.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fphoto.php%3Ffbid%3D10160673422260207%26set%3Dp.10160673422260207%26type%3D3%26theater&width=500&show_text=true&height=741&appId" width="500" height="741" style="border: none; overflow: hidden;" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allow="encrypted-media"></iframe> “The test is used by medical professionals as a partial method of confirming conditions, but you can also do the test yourself, and it only takes a few seconds,” Norton said. “If you can’t see any kind of gap beneath your nail beds, this means your fingers are clubbed.” A <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080529163120.htm">study by researchers at the University of Leeds</a> found that tumour in the lungs may lead to the overproduction of a fatty compound called PGE2, which results in clubbing. “There are benign cases of clubbing, where it isn’t associated with other illnesses, but particularly because of the link to lung cancer, it is generally regarded as rather sinister,” said Professor David Bonthron of the Leeds Institute of Molecular Medicine. Norton recommends that people who do the test and uncover clubbing need to see their GP as soon as possible.

Body

Why dangerous asteroids heading to Earth are so hard to detect

Earth is often in the firing line of fragments of asteroids and comets, most of which <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-why-meteors-light-up-the-night-sky-35754">burn up</a>tens of kilometres above our heads. But occasionally, something larger gets through. That’s what happened off Russia’s east coast on December 18 last year. A <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47607696">giant explosion occurred above the Bering Sea</a> when an asteroid some ten metres across detonated with an explosive energy ten times greater than the bomb dropped on Hiroshima. So why didn’t we see this asteroid coming? And why are we only hearing about its explosive arrival now? Nobody saw it Had the December explosion occurred near a city – as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/15/hundreds-injured-meteorite-russian-city-chelyabinsk">happened at Chelyabinsk in February 2013</a> – we would have heard all about it at the time. But because it happened in a remote part of the world, it went unremarked for more than three months, until details were unveiled at the <a href="https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2019/">50th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference</a> this week, based on <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/fireballs/">NASA’s collection of fireball data</a>. So where did this asteroid come from? At risk from space debris The Solar system is littered with material left over from the formation of the planets. Most of it is locked up in stable reservoirs – the Asteroid belt, the Edgeworth-Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud – far from Earth. Those reservoirs continually leak objects into interplanetary space, injecting fresh debris into orbits that cross those of the planets. The inner Solar system is awash with debris, ranging from tiny flecks of dust to comets and asteroids many kilometres in diameter. The vast majority of the debris that collides with Earth is utterly harmless, but our planet still <a href="https://theconversation.com/target-earth-how-asteroids-made-an-impact-on-australia-92836">bears the scars of collisions</a> with much larger bodies. The largest, most devastating impacts (like that which <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-dinosaurs-went-extinct-asteroid-collision-triggered-potentially-deadly-volcanic-eruptions-112134">helped to kill the dinosaurs</a> 65 million years ago) are the rarest. But smaller, more frequent collisions also pose a marked risk. In 1908, in Tunguska, Siberia, a <a href="http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160706-in-siberia-in-1908-a-huge-explosion-came-out-of-nowhere">vast explosion</a> levelled more than 2,000 square kilometres of forest. Due to the remote location, no deaths were recorded. Had the impact happened just two hours later, the city of St Petersburg could have been destroyed. In 2013, it was a 10,000-tonne asteroid that <a href="https://earthsky.org/space/meteor-asteroid-chelyabinsk-russia-feb-15-2013">detonated above the Russian city of Chelyabinsk</a>. More than 1,500 people were injured and around 7,000 buildings were damaged, but amazingly nobody was killed. We’re still trying to work out how often events like this happen. Our information on the frequency of the larger impacts is pretty limited, so estimates can vary dramatically. Typically, people argue that Tunguska-sized impacts happen <a href="https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article/50/1/1.18/201316">every few hundred years</a>, but that’s just based on a sample of one event. The truth is, we don’t really know. What can we do about it? Over the past couple of decades, a concerted effort has been made to search for potentially hazardous objects that pose a threat before they hit Earth. The result is the <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html">identification of thousands of near-Earth asteroids</a> upwards of a few metres across. Once found, the orbits of those objects can be determined, and their paths <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/ca/">predicted into the future</a>, to see whether an impact is possible or even likely. The longer we can observe a given object, the better that prediction becomes. But as we saw with Chelyabinsk in 2013, and again in December, we’re not there yet. While the catalogue of potentially hazardous objects continues to grow, many still remain undetected, waiting to catch us by surprise. If we discover a collision is pending in the coming days, we can work out where and when the collision will happen. That happened for the first time in 2008 when astronomers discovered the tiny <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/news/2008tc3.html">asteroid 2008 TC3</a>, 19 hours before it hit Earth’s atmosphere over northern Sudan. For impacts predicted with a longer lead time, it will be possible to work out whether the object is truly dangerous, or would merely produce a spectacular but harmless fireball (like 2008 TC3). For any objects that truly pose a threat, the race will be on to deflect them – to turn a hit into a miss. Searching the skies Before we can quantify the threat an object poses, we first need to know that the object is there. But finding asteroids is hard. Surveys scour the skies, <a href="https://spaceguardcentre.com/what-are-neos/finding-and-observing-asteroids/">looking for faint star-like points moving against the background stars</a>. A bigger asteroid will reflect more sunlight, and therefore appear brighter in the sky - at a given distance from Earth. As a result, the smaller the object, the closer it must be to Earth before we can spot it. Objects the size of the Chelyabinsk and Bering Sea events (about 20 and 10 metres diameter, respectively) are tiny. They can only be spotted when passing very close to our planet. The vast majority of the time they are simply undetectable. As a result, having impacts like these come out of the blue is really the norm, rather than the exception! The Chelyabinsk impact is a great example. Moving on its orbit around the Sun, it approached us in the daylight sky - totally hidden in the Sun’s glare. For larger objects, which impact much less frequently but would do far more damage, it is fair to expect we would receive some warning. Why not move the asteroid? While we need to keep searching for threatening objects, there is another way we could protect ourselves. Missions such as <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/hayabusa/in-depth/">Hayabusa</a>, <a href="http://www.hayabusa2.jaxa.jp/en/">Hayabusa 2</a> and <a href="https://www.asteroidmission.org/">OSIRIS-REx</a> have demonstrated the ability to travel to near-Earth asteroids, land on their surfaces, and move things around. From there, it is just a short hop to being able to deflect them – to change a potential collision into a near-miss. Interestingly, ideas of asteroid deflection dovetail nicely with the <a href="https://theconversation.com/mining-asteroids-could-unlock-untold-wealth-heres-how-to-get-started-95675">possibility of asteroid mining</a>. The technology needed to extract material from an asteroid and send it back to Earth could equally be used to alter the orbit of that asteroid, moving it away from a potential collision with our planet. We’re not quite there yet, but for the first time in our history, we have the potential to truly control our own destiny. Written by Jonti Horner. Republished with permission of <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-dangerous-asteroids-heading-to-earth-are-so-hard-to-detect-113845">The Conversation.</a>

Technology

Detecting strokes: Here’s what you need to know

After news broke of actor Luke Perry’s death following a “massive stroke” it’s important to understand the signs and symptoms. The 52-year-old Riverdale and Beverly Hills, 90210 star passed away on March 4, after suffering a massive stroke late last week. The much loved actor died while surrounded by family and friends. He leaves behind two children, 21-year-old Jack and 18-year-old Sophie, and his fiancé Wendy Madison Bauer. Celebrities and those close to the actor took to Twitter to share their thoughts and well wishes. <blockquote class="twitter-tweet tw-align-center" data-lang="en-gb"> My heart is broken. I will miss you so much Luke Perry. Sending all my love to your family. ❤️ <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/LukePerry?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#LukePerry</a> — Molly Ringwald (@MollyRingwald) <a href="https://twitter.com/MollyRingwald/status/1102631945819713538?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">4 March 2019</a></blockquote> <blockquote class="twitter-tweet tw-align-center" data-lang="en-gb"> As a young girl from Hamilton Ontario coming onto the biggest show in the world mid stream, Luke welcomed me from day one. My heart breaks. ❤️ <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/lukeperry?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#lukeperry</a> #90210 <a href="https://t.co/8QA4SEipqB">pic.twitter.com/8QA4SEipqB</a> — kathleen robertson (@kathleenrobert7) <a href="https://twitter.com/kathleenrobert7/status/1102640120539176960?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">4 March 2019</a></blockquote> <blockquote class="twitter-tweet tw-align-center" data-lang="en-gb"> Luke Perry... you were a joyful and vibrant soul. You will be missed but most certainly your legacy will be remembered forever. Rest in love and peace, friend. <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/Riverdale?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#Riverdale</a> — Riverdale Writers Room (@RiverdaleWriter) <a href="https://twitter.com/RiverdaleWriter/status/1102634825880547328?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">4 March 2019</a></blockquote> What is a stroke? According to the <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.cdc.gov/stroke/docs/ConsumerEd_Stroke.pdf" target="_blank">Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)</a>, strokes are caused by lack of blood supply to the brain. This can be due to the blood flow being blocked by a clot (ischemic stroke) or when the vessels in the brain burst (haemorrhagic stroke). Other incidents are classified as “brain attacks”, which happen when people suffer from a transient ischemic attack (TIA) or otherwise known as “mini strokes”. These occur when there is a blockage of blood flow to the brain. But despite these short incidents only occurring for five minutes, they should be taken seriously as they are indicators for future strokes. When the brain fails to receive an adequate amount of blood flow or oxygen, it can result in permanent disability or death. What are the major symptoms of stroke? <a rel="noopener" href="https://strokefoundation.org.au/About-Stroke/Stroke-symptoms" target="_blank">The Stroke Foundation</a> urges everyone to brush up on F.A.S.T. The F.A.S.T test is a simple acronym that helps people understand the symptoms of stroke, and could be the difference between life or death. F: Facial drooping or numbness. Ask the person to smile and check for any asymmetries. A: Arm weakness. If the person is suffering from a stroke, they may find it difficult to move their arms. Ask them to raise both their arms to see any irregularities. S: Slurred Speech. A common symptom of a stroke is slurring of the speech. People may either be talking extremely slow or it may be difficult to understand what they’re saying. Ask the person to repeat phrases several times, but even if their speech returns to normal, be sure to call a doctor regardless. T: Time to call 000. If the person has any of the above symptoms, then call emergency services immediately. Other symptoms to look out for While F.A.S.T is important to be on top of, there are other symptoms also linked to strokes, such as walking difficulties or understanding conversations. Those who suffer from severe headaches, dizziness, loss of balance or coordination, all come under signs of a stroke and should be looked at by a doctor immediately. Who is at risk? Strokes do not discriminate and can happen to anyone at any age, but there are certain factors that make some people more susceptible to the condition than others. People who excessively smoke or consume alcohol, live sedentary lifestyles, have high cholesterol, blood pressure or diabetes have a much higher risk of suffering from a stroke.

Caring

New breakthrough test detects Alzheimer’s decades earlier

A simple new blood test can now pinpoint Alzheimer’s disease up to 20 years before any symptoms appear, in a significant breakthrough in the fight against dementia. Pioneered by Australian and Japanese researchers, the blood test measures levels of beta-amyloid – known as the “Alzheimer’s protein” – in the brain. The protein begins to build up from the age of 50, years before symptoms often appear, and is a strong indicator that a person will get the disease. The world’s first accurate blood test will make diagnosis much easier, cheaper and more accessible. Currently, most patients only get diagnosed with Alzheimer’s once symptoms appear. Lead researcher Professor Colin Master, from the University of Melbourne, said the blood test can now be a part of a routine health check and screen people for their risk of developing Alzheimer’s, the most common form of dementia. “I can see ... people having a regular check-up every five years after the age of 55, 60 to determine whether they are on the Alzheimer’s pathway or not,” he said. “The test itself has an accuracy of greater than 90 per cent at predicting people who are at risk of developing Alzheimer’s because they have a build-up of this abnormal protein in the brain,” Professor Master said. However, Professor Masters acknowledges many people might not want to know they one day may suffer from the disease. "Most people probably wouldn't want to have this test unless there's a specific therapy, but many others would take the view that they want to plan ahead by five or 10 years," Professor Masters said. "If the test is negative, there's a 95 per cent chance that you're not going to develop Alzheimer's within the foreseeable future – that means within 10 or 15 years." However, the professor said it will still early days and the blood test will now be used to find people suitable for clinical trials, before hopefully expanding to be used by the wider population. "Always in this type of medical science research, it's always good to have a diagnosis first and then a treatment follows," he said. "Once you can diagnose the condition accurately and specifically, then it makes it so much easier to work on developing a specific therapy."

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