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The ethics of home ownership in an age of growing inequality

<p>For many Americans today, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2022/03/23/key-facts-about-housing-affordability-in-the-u-s/">homeownership is an unattainable dream</a>. </p> <p>In 2022, the average <a href="https://apnews.com/article/inflation-business-economy-prices-mortgages-b3d20020ecddf7a13bd62fb7b5ed7c0c">long-term U.S. mortgage rate rose to 7%</a> for the first time in more than two decades. The median sales price of existing homes <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-home-sales-fell-again-in-june-economists-estimate-11658309401">climbed to a record US$416,000</a> while demand for mortgages dropped to a <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2022/10/19/mortgage-demand-drops-to-a-25-year-low-as-interest-rates-climb.html">25-year low</a>. </p> <p>Experts forecast a turnaround in 2023, predicting a fall in <a href="https://www.forbes.com/advisor/mortgages/real-estate/housing-market-predictions/">home prices</a> and <a href="https://www.forbes.com/advisor/mortgages/mortgage-interest-rates-forecast/">mortgage rates</a>. With the housing market likely to cool modestly, the prospect of a gradual return to affordability may sound like music to buyers’ ears. </p> <p>But should people be purchasing property at all?</p> <p>My <a href="https://hi.psu.edu/scholars/desiree-lim/">research examines</a> the negative impact of property ownership. Despite the current state of the housing market, property is <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/qai/2022/08/30/housing-prices-are-dropping---yes-a-house-is-still-a-good-investment/">still considered a sound investment</a> – at least for the limited group who can afford it. However, property ownership can have serious consequences on others’ lives. </p> <h2>Buying to make a profit?</h2> <p>There is a difference between the two main categories of property buyers: those purchasing property as a primary home versus property for investment.</p> <p>Purchasing property as a primary home is considered more ethical than acquiring property for investment, as housing is considered a basic necessity. </p> <p>Property for investment, however, is owned for personal profit, often without the owner’s intending to ever live there. Investors may purchase homes that can be “fixed and flipped” and sell them at a profit or lease them to renters. </p> <p>As of 2019, renters headed around <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/08/02/as-national-eviction-ban-expires-a-look-at-who-rents-and-who-owns-in-the-u-s/">36% of the nation’s 122.8 million households</a>. Census data shows that <a href="https://www.census.gov/housing/hvs/files/currenthvspress.pdf">there are 48.2 million rental units</a> in the U.S., roughly 70% of which are owned by individual landlords.</p> <h2>Landlordphobia?</h2> <p>Landlords have often been <a href="https://jacobin.com/2021/07/abolish-landlords-cancel-rent-eviction-homelessness">criticized for being callous</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/apr/16/landlords-social-parasites-last-people-should-be-honouring-buy-to-let">greedy</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00502-1">COVID-19</a> exacerbated landlords’ poor reputations because the pandemic increased <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2021.2020866">renter payment difficulties</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306353">triggered widespread evictions</a> and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3613030">homelessness</a>.</p> <p>Some renters complained about uncaring landlords who were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12555">accused of pressuring and threatening vulnerable tenants</a>. The federal and state governments stepped in to help people with such interventions as the <a href="https://nlihc.org/coronavirus-and-housing-homelessness/national-eviction-moratorium">federal eviction moratorium</a> and New York City’s <a href="https://www.nyc.gov/site/rentfreeze/index.page">rent freeze program</a>. </p> <p>Yet landlords also provide rental opportunities for those who prefer not to buy and for those who wish to buy their own home but cannot afford it. Furthermore, landlords can be seen as offering a <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/personal-finance/reasons-renting-a-house-is-better-than-buying-one-2019-8?r=US&amp;IR=T">valuable service to those who are not seeking long-term occupancy</a>, such as university students who plan to leave upon graduation or temporary visitors to the U.S. </p> <p>The ethics of renting out property, then, seems to turn partly on whether renters need it for long-term basic shelter. </p> <p>Landlords are often blamed for the housing crisis. However, it is the responsibility of the government to ensure the <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-housing/homelessness-and-human-rights">right to long-term shelter</a>. </p> <p>Individual landlords may contribute toward a poor housing system, but they act within the confines of the system. Only governments have the power to change the system, through investment in affordable housing. </p> <h2>The ethics of owning a home</h2> <p>Homebuyers also have ethical obligations to others.</p> <p>Choosing to own property in a <a href="https://bayareaequityatlas.org/indicators/gentrification-risk#/">gentrifying neighborhood, or one considered at risk of gentrifying</a>, may contribute to the forced displacement of <a href="https://www.law.georgetown.edu/poverty-journal/blog/examining-the-negative-impacts-of-gentrification/">existing long-term residents</a>. The harms of having to leave one’s former neighborhood include the severing of community networks or enduring the strain of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/17/business/economy/san-francisco-commute.html">extraordinarily long work commutes</a>. Additionally, persons of color <a href="http://www.wipsociology.org/2021/05/20/how-gentrification-reproduces-racial-inequality">are disproportionately affected by gentrification</a>, which may create new patterns of racial segregation.</p> <p>Given these consequences, aspiring homeowners should perhaps avoid purchasing homes in neighbourhoods with vulnerable residents. But, with housing unaffordability writ large, first-time buyers may be able to afford properties only in neighborhoods at risk of gentrification.</p> <h2>Mitigating risk</h2> <p>How can governments mitigate risks like racial segregation while also providing affordable housing? </p> <p>One example is Singapore’s system of <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-07-08/behind-the-design-of-singapore-s-low-cost-housing">affordable public housing</a>. To prevent segregation, Singapore introduced racial quotas in public housing that require minimum levels of occupancy of each of its main ethnic groups – Chinese, Malay, Indian, and others, which includes all other ethnicities. Though intrusive and <a href="https://www.cigionline.org/static/documents/documents/PB%20no.128web.pdf">imperfect in its execution</a>, the Singaporean approach shows that a more proactive approach to housing is possible.</p> <p>Landlords may have moral duties, but the government’s role in recognising and protecting the right to stable long-term housing must not be ignored.</p> <p><em>Image credits: Getty Images</em></p> <p><em>This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ethics-of-home-ownership-in-an-age-of-growing-inequality-196775" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>. </em></p>

Real Estate

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Digital inequality: why can I enter your building – but your website shows me the door?

<p>When people hear the term “accessibility” in the context of disability, most will see images of ramps, automatic doors, elevators, or tactile paving (textured ground which helps vision impaired people navigate public spaces). These are physical examples of inclusive practice that most people understand.</p> <p>You may even use these features yourself, for convenience, as you go about your day. However, such efforts to create an inclusive physical world aren’t being translated into designing the digital world.</p> <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=600&amp;h=400&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=30&amp;auto=format&amp;w=600&amp;h=400&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=15&amp;auto=format&amp;w=600&amp;h=400&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;h=503&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=30&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;h=503&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463211/original/file-20220516-25-nl8hd8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=15&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;h=503&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=3 2262w" alt="A large wheelchair sign is visible to the left of a wheelchair ramp." /></a><figcaption><em><span class="caption">New buildings are required to comply with a range of physical access requirements, which may include tactile paving (seen in yellow).</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></em></figcaption></figure> <p><strong>Accessibility fails</strong></p> <p>Digital accessibility refers to the way people with a lived experience of disability interact with the cyber world.</p> <p>One example comes from an author of this article, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2019-07-13/dark-patterns-online-captcha-accessibility-disability-community/11301054" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scott</a>, who is legally blind. Scott is unable to purchase football tickets online because the ticketing website uses an image-based “CAPTCHA” test. It’s a seemingly simple task, but fraught with challenges when considering accessibility issues.</p> <p>Despite Scott having an IT-related PhD, and two decades of digital accessibility experience in academic and commercial arenas, it falls on his teenage son to complete the online ticket purchase.</p> <p>Screen readers, high-contrast colour schemes and text magnifiers are all assistive technology tools that enable legally blind users to interact with websites. Unfortunately, they are useless if a website has not been designed with an inclusive approach.</p> <p>The other author of this article, Justin, uses a wheelchair for mobility and can’t even purchase wheelchair seating tickets over the web. He has to phone a special access number to do so.</p> <p>Both of these are examples of digital accessibility fails. And they’re more common than most people realise.</p> <p><strong>We can clearly do better</strong></p> <p>The term “disability” covers a spectrum of <a href="https://www.apsc.gov.au/working-aps/diversity-and-inclusion/disability/definition-disability" target="_blank" rel="noopener">physical and cognitive conditions</a>. It can can range from short-term conditions to lifelong ones.</p> <p>“Digital accessibility” applies to a broad range of users <a href="https://www.w3.org/WAI/people-use-web/abilities-barriers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">with varying abilities</a>.</p> <p>At last count, nearly <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/disability/disability-ageing-and-carers-australia-summary-findings/2018" target="_blank" rel="noopener">one in five Australians (17.7%)</a> lived with some form of disability. This figure increases significantly when you consider the physical and cognitive impacts of ageing.</p> <p>At the same time, Australians are becoming increasingly reliant on digital services. According to a <a href="https://www.pwc.com.au/consulting/connected-government/potential-of-digital-inclusion.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2022 survey</a> by consulting firm PricewaterhouseCoopers, 45% of respondents in New South Wales and Victoria increased their use of digital channels during the COVID-19 pandemic.</p> <p>In contrast, research undertaken by <a href="https://www.infosys.com/australia/digital-accessibility-journey/executive-summary.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Infosys in December 2021</a> found only 3% of leading companies in Australia and New Zealand had effective digital accessibility processes.</p> <p><strong>But have we improved?</strong></p> <p>Areas that <em>have</em> shown accessibility improvement include <a href="https://blog.hootsuite.com/inclusive-design-social-media/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">social media platforms</a> such as YouTube, Facebook and Instagram, food ordering services such as <a href="https://www.afb.org/aw/20/4/16411" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Uber Eats</a>, and media platforms such as the ABC News app.</p> <p>Challenges still persist in <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/cognizant/2022/03/03/how-to-make-online-banking-disabled-people-friendly/?sh=21a3d5dda4a5" target="_blank" rel="noopener">online banking</a>, <a href="https://www.travelweekly.com/Travel-News/Travel-Agent-Issues/Websites-critiqued-on-accessibility-to-disabled-customers" target="_blank" rel="noopener">travel booking sites</a>, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/sarahkim/2020/12/30/accessibility-of-online-shopping/?sh=66a9d883e49e" target="_blank" rel="noopener">shopping sites</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10209-021-00792-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener">educational websites and content</a>.</p> <p>Data from the United States indicates lawsuits relating to accessibility <a href="https://www.essentialaccessibility.com/blog/web-accessibility-lawsuits">are on the rise</a>, with outcomes including financial penalties and requirements for business owners to remedy the accessibility of their website/s.</p> <p>In Australia, however, it’s often hard to obtain exact figures for the scale of accessibility complaints lodged with site owners. <a href="https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/disability-rights/publications/overlooked-consumers-20-australian-population-disabilities" target="_blank" rel="noopener">This 1997 article</a> from the Australian Human Right Commission suggests the conversation hasn’t shifted much in 25 years.</p> <figure class="align-center zoomable"><em><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=600&amp;h=257&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=30&amp;auto=format&amp;w=600&amp;h=257&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=15&amp;auto=format&amp;w=600&amp;h=257&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;h=323&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=30&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;h=323&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463213/original/file-20220516-19-vjfht8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=15&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;h=323&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=3 2262w" alt="A rendered illustration of a disabled man in a wheelchair and woman with a hearing aid lifting weights." /></a></em><figcaption><em><span class="caption">It’s a human right to have fair and equal access to the web and all its services.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></em></figcaption></figure> <p><strong>There are solutions at hand</strong></p> <p>There’s a clear solution to the digital divide. The World Wide Web Consortium’s <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG21/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Web Content Accessibility Guidelines</a> (WCAG) standard has been widely adopted across the globe. It’s universally available, and is a requirement for all Australian public-facing government websites.</p> <p>It guides website and app developers on how to use web languages (such as HTML and CSS) in ways that enable end users who rely on assistive technologies. There are no specialist technologies or techniques required to make websites or apps accessible. All that’s needed is an adherence to good practice.</p> <p>Unfortunately, WCAG is rarely treated as an <a href="https://www.rev.com/blog/web-accessibility-laws-australia-new-zealand" target="_blank" rel="noopener">enforceable standard</a>. All too often, adherence to WCAG requirements in Australia is reduced to a box-ticking exercise.</p> <p>Our academic work and experience liaising with a range of vendors has revealed that even where specific accessibility requirements are stated, many vendors will tick “yes” regardless of their knowledge of accessibility principles, or their ability to deliver against the standards.</p> <p>In cases where vendors do genuinely work towards WCAG compliance, they often rely on automated testing (via online tools), rather than human <a href="https://zoonou.com/resources/blog/why-automated-accessibility-testing-tools-are-not-enough/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">testing</a>. As a result, genuine accessibility and usability issues can go <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262352732_Benchmarking_web_accessibility_evaluation_tools_Measuring_the_harm_of_sole_reliance_on_automated_tests" target="_blank" rel="noopener">unreported</a>. While the coding of each element of a website might be WCAG compliant, the sum of all the parts may not be.</p> <p>In 2016, the Australian government adopted <a href="https://www.accessibility.org.au/policy-and-research/australian-policy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">standard EN 301549</a> (a direct implementation of an existing European standard). It’s aimed at preventing inaccessible products (hardware, software, websites and services) entering the government’s digital ecosystem. Yet the new standard seems to have achieved little. Few, if any, references to it appear in academic literature or the public web.</p> <p>It seems to have met a similar fate to the government’s <a href="https://www.governmentnews.com.au/national-transition-strategy-web-accessibility-in-transition/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">National Transition Strategy</a> for digital accessibility, which quietly disappeared in 2015.</p> <p><strong>The carrot, not the stick</strong></p> <p>Accessibility advocates take different approaches to advancing the accessibility agenda with reticent organisations. Some instil the fear of legal action, often citing the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A1RbzjUBT1s" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Maguire v SOCOG case</a>, where the 2000 Olympic website was found to be inaccessible.</p> <p>In a more recent example, the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-11-05/blind-woman-launches-court-action-against-coles-over-its-website/5869874?nw=0&amp;r=HtmlFragment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Manage v Coles settlement</a> saw Coles agree to make improvements to their website’s accessibility after being sued by a legally blind woman.</p> <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=600&amp;h=448&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=30&amp;auto=format&amp;w=600&amp;h=448&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=15&amp;auto=format&amp;w=600&amp;h=448&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;h=563&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=30&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;h=563&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463210/original/file-20220516-21-7tu89a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=15&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;h=563&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=3 2262w" alt="Screenshot of the top of Coles's 'accessibility' section on the company's website, with a red Coles logo on the top-left." /></a><figcaption><em><span class="caption">After getting sued by a legally blind customer in 2014, Coles made improvements to its website’s accessibility features.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Screenshot/Coles</span></span></em></figcaption></figure> <p>In the Coles case, the stick became the carrot; Coles went on to win a <a href="https://www.accessibility.org.au/award-winners-2019/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">national website accessibility award</a> after the original complainant nominated them following their remediation efforts.</p> <p>But while the financial impact of being sued might spur an organisation into action, it’s more likely to commit to genuine effort if this will generate a <a href="https://www.w3.org/WAI/business-case/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">positive return on investment</a>.</p> <p><strong>Accessible by default</strong></p> <p>We can attest to the common misconception that disability implies a need for help and support. Most people living with disability are seeking to live independently and with self-determination.</p> <p>To break the cycle of financial and social dependence frequently associated with the equity space, governments, corporations and educational institutions need to become accessible by default.</p> <p>The technologies and policies are all in place, ready to go. What is needed is leadership from government and non-government sectors to define digital accessibility as a right, and not a privilege. <img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182432/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /></p> <p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/scott-hollier-1337594" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scott Hollier</a>, Adjunct Senior Lecturer - Science and Mathematics, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/edith-cowan-university-720" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Edith Cowan University</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/justin-brown-1344442" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Justin Brown</a>, Associate Dean (Teaching and Learning), School of Science, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/edith-cowan-university-720" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Edith Cowan University</a></em></p> <p><em>This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/digital-inequality-why-can-i-enter-your-building-but-your-website-shows-me-the-door-182432" target="_blank" rel="noopener">original article</a>.</em></p> <p><em>Image: Getty Images</em></p>

Technology

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Why we need to address gender inequality to reduce violence against women

<p><em><strong>Dr Peter Streker is a community psychologist who has worked in the field of family violence for more than 20 years with thousands of violent and abusive men. He works with governments, community organisations, businesses, schools and sports clubs to implement strategies that promote gender equity and prevent violence against women.</strong></em></p> <p><a href="http://www.ourwatch.org.au/understanding-violence/facts-and-figures" target="_blank"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><strong>One Australian woman is killed almost every week</strong></span> </a>by a partner or former partner. One in three women have experienced physical violence, one in five subjected to sexual violence and eight out of ten harassed on the street. The World Health Organisation recognises violence against women – physical, sexual or psychological – as a major public health problem and a <span style="text-decoration: underline;"><strong><a href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs239/en/" target="_blank">violation of women’s human rights</a></strong></span>.</p> <p>Many theories have been put forward to explain why men, in Australia and around the world, commit violent acts against women. But contrary to popular belief, research suggests drugs and alcohol, mental illness, poor anger management skills or violent upbringings aren’t the major factors. While there is no single cause, global research shows that gender inequality is one of the strongest predictors of high rates of male violence against women.</p> <p><strong>Cultural attitudes</strong></p> <p>The risk of violence against women is generally heightened in cultures that reinforce male superiority and cultural attitudes that excuse, justify or promote violence.</p> <p>“Most men are not violent at home, but those who are use violence and intimidation to assert power and control over women and children in their homes,” says community psychologist Dr Peter Streker.</p> <p>“At a societal level, the condoning of violence against women is one of the strongest drivers of violence against women as it helps excuse perpetrators from their actions. Research has also shown that high rates of violence exist in cultures where men control most of the decision making in powerful places such as politics and corporate boards, and women’s independence is limited. This is also a typical pattern we see in homes where violence against women occurs.”</p> <p>“We also often see more violence against women when rigid, traditional gender roles and stereotypes are upheld, such as the belief that men should be competitive and dominant and women should be cooperative and nurturing. The other factor that stands out involves men who are part of aggressive social groups that are disrespectful towards women.”</p> <p><strong>Common misunderstandings</strong></p> <p>If the contribution of gender inequality to violence towards women is news to you, it’s no wonder, because Dr Streker says we often overestimate the impact of drugs and alcohol, mental illness, poor anger management skills and violent upbringings.</p> <p>“Drugs and alcohol certainly play a role in violence against women, but typically when the gender-based drivers of male domination and control are also present,” he says. “We have found that many men are violent while sober and many others don’t become violent when intoxicated. The combination with the other drivers is the key.</p> <p>“Some mental health conditions may add risk, but they do not explain the broad rates of violence across the population. Some men claim that they have no control over their anger at home, although this problem seems to disappear in front of other men in positions of authority such as their CEOs or police officers. Many of these men also go to great lengths to cover up their abusive behaviour and make sure no one else knows about it.</p> <p>“And if a violent upbringing was the cause of family violence, we would also expect to see similar rates of family violence perpetrated by women who were violated as girls, which we don’t. The gendered patterns are clear.”</p> <p><strong>Long-term change</strong></p> <p>Dr Streker says long-term cultural change that promotes gender equality – at home, in the workplace and in our major institutions – will help us to reduce male violence against women.</p> <p>An important place to start is to challenge gender stereotypes about who goes to work and who stays home to care for the kids. <span style="text-decoration: underline;"><strong><a href="https://aifs.gov.au/publications/parents-working-out-work" target="_blank">At the moment 36 per cent of Australian mums work part-time, compared with 9.5 per cent of men</a></strong></span>.</p> <p>“We’ve progressed a long way from the 1970s but there’s still very strong pressures on men and women to conform to old gender norms,” says Dr Streker. “For example, if a couple has a child there’s often an implicit expectation that the woman will sacrifice her career development for the family, even if they have the same education and experience in the workforce.”</p> <p>He says this decision should always be the couple’s choice, but sharing these responsibilities more equally will provide women with more opportunities for job promotions and leadership positions, and the financial ability to leave violent partners. It will also provide men with more opportunities to spend extra time with their children.</p> <p>“Men currently dominate positions of power in politics, business and sport,” says Dr Streker. “We even see this in female-dominated industries, such as education, where 65 per cent of teaching staff are women, but 65 per cent of principals are men.”</p> <p>Interestingly, <span style="text-decoration: underline;"><strong><a href="http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2015/economies/#economy=AUS" target="_blank">Australia currently ranks 36 out of 145 countries on the Global Gender Gap index</a></strong></span>, and our rank has declined in recent years because of low numbers of women in parliament and other senior positions.</p> <p>Dr Streker says disrespectful comments dressed up as jokes also need to be challenged. “People may think that sexist jokes, demeaning comments and threats of violence are harmless, but they contribute to an aggressive culture that disrespects women and girls and reinforces male superiority,” he says.</p> <p>“We need to build on the courageous, pioneering work of many women over many decades and continue to develop a culture that unambiguously rejects violence against women, promotes gender equality in public and private life, and helps more men learn to deal with difficult problems without resorting to a gun or his fists.”</p> <p><img width="150" height="33" src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/7264648/white-ribbon-day-psychlopaedialogo_150x33.jpg" alt="White Ribbon Day Psychlopaedialogo" style="float: right;"/></p> <p><em>Written by Dr Peter Streker. Republished with permission of <a href="https://psychlopaedia.org/" target="_blank"><strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Psychlopaedia.org</span></strong></a>. </em></p>

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