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What’s the difference between autism and Asperger’s disorder?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/andrew-cashin-458270">Andrew Cashin</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/southern-cross-university-1160">Southern Cross University</a> Swedish climate activist Greta Thunberg describes herself as having <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/sep/02/greta-thunberg-responds-to-aspergers-critics-its-a-superpower">Asperger’s</a> while others on the autism spectrum, such as Australian comedian Hannah Gatsby, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2022/mar/19/hannah-gadsby-autism-diagnosis-little-out-of-whack">describe</a> themselves as “autistic”. But what’s the difference? Today, the previous diagnoses of “Asperger’s disorder” and “autistic disorder” both fall within the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder, or ASD. Autism describes a “neurotype” – a person’s thinking and information-processing style. Autism is one of the forms of diversity in human thinking, which comes with strengths and challenges. When these challenges become overwhelming and impact how a person learns, plays, works or socialises, a diagnosis of <a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/autism/what-is-autism-spectrum-disorder">autism spectrum disorder</a> is made. <h2>Where do the definitions come from?</h2> The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) outlines the criteria clinicians use to diagnose mental illnesses and behavioural disorders. Between 1994 and 2013, autistic disorder and Asperger’s disorder were the two primary diagnoses related to autism in the fourth edition of the manual, the DSM-4. In 2013, the DSM-5 collapsed both diagnoses into one <a href="https://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/doi/book/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596">autism spectrum disorder</a>. <h2>How did we used to think about autism?</h2> The two thinkers behind the DSM-4 diagnostic categories were Baltimore psychiatrist Leo Kanner and Viennese paediatrician Hans Asperger. They described the challenges faced by people who were later diagnosed with autistic disorder and Asperger’s disorder. Kanner and Asperger observed patterns of behaviour that differed to typical thinkers in the domains of communication, social interaction and flexibility of behaviour and thinking. The variance was associated with challenges in adaptation and distress. Between the 1940s and 1994, the majority of those diagnosed with autism also had an intellectual disability. Clinicians became focused on the accompanying intellectual disability as a necessary part of autism. The introduction of Asperger’s disorder shifted this focus and acknowledged the diversity in autism. In the DSM-4 it superficially looked like autistic disorder and Asperger’s disorder were different things, with the Asperger’s criteria stating there could be no intellectual disability or delay in the development of speech. Today, as a legacy of the recognition of the autism itself, the <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/disability/autism-in-australia/contents/autism">majority of people</a> diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder – the new term from the DSM-5 – don’t a have an accompanying intellectual disability. <h2>What changed with ‘autism spectrum disorder’?</h2> The move to autism spectrum disorder brought the previously diagnosed autistic disorder and Asperger’s disorder under the one new diagnostic umbrella term. It made clear that other diagnostic groups – such as intellectual disability – can co-exist with autism, but are separate things. The other major change was acknowledging communication and social skills are intimately linked and not separable. Rather than separating “impaired communication” and “impaired social skills”, the diagnostic criteria changed to “impaired social communication”. The introduction of the spectrum in the diagnostic term further clarified that people have varied capabilities in the flexibility of their thinking, behaviour and social communication – and this can change in response to the context the person is in. <h2>Why do some people prefer the old terminology?</h2> Some people feel the clinical label of Asperger’s allowed a much more refined understanding of autism. This included recognising the achievements and great societal contributions of people with known or presumed autism. The contraction “Aspie” played an enormous part in the shift to positive identity formation. In the time up to the release of the DSM-5, <a href="https://xminds.org/resources/Documents/Web%20files/Aspie%20Criteria%20by%20Attwood.pdf">Tony Attwood and Carol Gray</a>, two well known thinkers in the area of autism, highlighted the strengths associated with “being Aspie” as something to be proud of. But they also raised awareness of the challenges. <h2>What about identity-based language?</h2> A more recent shift in language has been the reclamation of what was once viewed as a slur – “autistic”. This was a shift from person-first language to identity-based language, from “person with autism spectrum disorder” to “autistic”. The neurodiversity rights movement describes its aim to <a href="https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/71531/1/JCU_71531_AAM.pdf">push back</a> against a breach of human rights resulting from the wish to cure, or fundamentally change, people with autism. The movement uses a “social model of disability”. This views disability as arising from societies’ response to individuals and the failure to adjust to enable full participation. The inherent challenges in autism are seen as only a problem if not accommodated through reasonable adjustments. However the social model contrasts itself against a very outdated medical or clinical model. Current clinical thinking and practice focuses on <a href="https://www.collegianjournal.com/article/S1322-7696(22)00122-6/fulltext">targeted</a> supports to reduce distress, promote thriving and enable optimum individual participation in school, work, community and social activities. It doesn’t aim to cure or fundamentally change people with autism. A diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder signals there are challenges beyond what will be solved by adjustments alone; individual supports are also needed. So it’s important to combine the best of the social model and contemporary clinical model.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223643/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/andrew-cashin-458270">Andrew Cashin</a>, Professor of Nursing, School of Health and Human Sciences, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/southern-cross-university-1160">Southern Cross University</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-difference-between-autism-and-aspergers-disorder-223643">original article</a>.

Mind

We talked to dozens of people about their experience of grief. Here’s what we learned (and how it’s different from what you might think)

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michelle-peterie-564209">Michelle Peterie</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-sydney-841">University of Sydney</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/alex-broom-121063">Alex Broom</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-sydney-841">University of Sydney</a> Have you ever felt a sudden pang of sadness? A bird seems to stop and look you in the eye. A photo drops out of a messy drawer from long ago, in the mundanity of a weekend spring clean. Your day is immediately derailed, unsettled. You are pulled into something you thought was past. And yet, in being pulled back, you are grateful, reconnected, and grief-stricken all over again. “You’ll get over it”. “Give it time”. “You need time to move on”. These are common cultural refrains in the face of loss. But what if grief doesn’t play by the rules? What if grief is a different thing altogether? We talked to 95 people about their experiences of grief surrounding the loss of a loved one, and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00380261241228412">their stories</a> provided a fundamentally different account of grief to the one often presented to us culturally. <h2>Disordered grief?</h2> Grief is often imagined as a time-bound period in which one processes the pain of loss – that is, adjusts to absence and works toward “moving on”. The bereaved are expected to process their pain within the confines of what society deems “normal”. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-the-dsm-and-how-are-mental-disorders-diagnosed-9568">DSM-5 psychiatric manual</a> says if grief drags on too long, in fact, it becomes a pathology (a condition with a medical diagnosis). “Prolonged grief disorder” is the name given to “persistent difficulties associated with bereavement that exceeded expected social, cultural, or religious expectations”. While there can be <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-prolonged-grief-should-be-listed-as-a-mental-disorder-4262">value</a> in clinical diagnostic categories such as this, the danger is they put artificial boundaries around emotions. The pathologisation of grief can be deeply alienating to those experiencing it, for whom the pressure to “move on” can be hurtful and counterproductive. The stories we gathered in our research were raw, complex and often fraught. They did not sit comfortably with commonsense understandings of how grief “should” progress. As bereaved daughter Barbara told us: "Grief is not in the little box, it doesn’t even come close to a little box." <h2>Grief starts early</h2> The tendency is to think of grief as something that happens post death. The person we love dies, we have a funeral, and the grief sets in. Then it slowly subsides with the steady march of time. In fact, grief often begins earlier, often in a clinical consultation where the words “terminal” or “nothing more we can do” are used. Or when a loved one is told “go home and get your life in order”. Grief can begin months or even years before bereavement. As the people we interviewed experienced it, loss was also cumulative. The gradual deterioration of a loved one’s health in the years or months before their death imposed other painful losses: the loss of chosen lifestyles, the loss of longstanding relational rhythms, the loss of shared hopes and anticipated futures. Many participants felt their loved ones – and, indeed, the lives they shared with them – slipping away long before their physical deaths. <h2>Living with the dead</h2> Yet the dead do not simply leave us. They remain with us, in memories, rituals and cultural events. From <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-ancient-cultures-teach-us-about-grief-mourning-and-continuity-of-life-86199">Mexico’s Dia de los Muertos</a> to <a href="https://theconversation.com/japans-obon-festival-how-family-commemoration-and-ancestral-worship-shapes-daily-life-179890">Japan’s Opon</a>, festivals of the dead play a key role in cultures around the world. In that way, remembering the dead remains a critical aspect of living. So too does <a href="https://theconversation.com/theres-not-always-closure-in-the-never-ending-story-of-grief-3096">the ongoing experience of grief</a>. Events of this kind are not merely celebratory. They are critical forms through which life and death, joy and grief, are brought together and integrated. The absence of remembering can hold its own trouble, as our participants’ accounts revealed. As bereaved wife Anna explained: "I just find it really frustrating and I do get quite angry and upset sometimes. I know that life goes on. I’d be talking to girlfriends and stuff like that and it’s like they’ve forgotten that I’ve lost my husband. They haven’t, but nothing really changed in their life. But for me, and my family, it has." Part of the problem, here, is the ambivalent role grief plays in advanced industrialised societies like ours. Many of our participants felt pressure to perform resilience or (in clinical terms) to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1363459317724854">“recover” quickly after loss</a>. But whose interests does a swift recovery serve? An employer’s? Friends who just want to get on with a death-free life? And, even more importantly, mightn’t ongoing connections with the dead enable better living? Might bringing the dead along with us actually make for better deaths and better lives? Many of our participants felt their loved ones remained with them, and experienced their “absent presence” as a source of comfort. Grieving, in this context, involved spending time “with” the dead. Anna described her practice as follows: "I had a diary, so I just write stuff in it about how I’m feeling or something happened and I’ll say to [my deceased husband], it’s all to [my deceased husband], “Do you remember, blah, blah, blah.” I’ll just talk about that memory that I have of that particular time and I find that that helps." <h2>Caring for those who grieve</h2> Grief does not begin at death, but neither do relationships end there. To rush the bereaved through grief – to usher them towards “recovery” and the more comfortable territories of happiness and productivity – is to do them a disservice. And, perhaps more critically, ridding our lives of the dead and grief may, in the end, make for more limited and muted emotional lives.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223848/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michelle-peterie-564209">Michelle Peterie</a>, Research Fellow, Sydney Centre for Healthy Societies, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-sydney-841">University of Sydney</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/alex-broom-121063">Alex Broom</a>, Professor of Sociology & Director, Sydney Centre for Healthy Societies, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-sydney-841">University of Sydney</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-talked-to-dozens-of-people-about-their-experience-of-grief-heres-what-we-learned-and-how-its-different-from-what-you-might-think-223848">original article</a>.

Caring

What’s the difference between memory loss and dementia?

When it comes to memory loss, it's normal to become a little more forgetful as we age. However, it’s important to know the difference between a standard level of memory loss, and the early signs of dementia. Researchers at the University of New South Wales (UNSW) say it is crucially important to distinguish between the physical decline of ageing, and the more sinister reality of cognitive decline. Associate Professor Simone Reppermund from the Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing says, “As we age, we get more frail, and it may be difficult to walk longer distances or to have the range of motion to drive a car.” “But that's unrelated to cognitive decline, and this is where dementia or cognitive impairment comes in. A person with dementia at some point will not be able to do the things they once could do without thinking, such as drive a car, because they get confused and are no longer able to process the sensory information required to do this.” Prof. Brodaty went on to say that some cognitive decline is part of normal ageing. “As we age, we become slower in our processing speed. We’re not as good at remembering things, particularly when they’re not able to be logically sorted and connected.” But it’s not all bad for older folks, as some things are known to improve with age. “As we age our vocabulary improves, our judgement improves, our ability to organise things improves. In everyday tests where we can sort, say, 10 grocery items into different categories, we do just as well as the younger person because we can use those strategies to compensate. There is also evidence that we become wiser as we get older.” According to <a href="https://www.dementia.org.au" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Dementia Australia</a>, it’s when people encounter difficulties with the following on a regular basis that there could be some underlying cognitive cause worth investigating. These difficulties include: <ul> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Trouble remembering recent events </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Trouble finding the right word </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Trouble remembering the day and date </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Forgetting where things are usually kept </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Difficulty adjusting to changes in routine </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Trouble understanding written content or a story on television </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Difficulty following conversations in groups </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Problems handling finances </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Difficulty with everyday activities </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Losing interest in activities that were previously enjoyable </li> </ul> Researchers and medical experts say that even if encountering these difficulties has not become a huge hurdle, it is important to be assessed by a doctor. Some conditions can cause symptoms similar to illnesses of cognitive decline, and can be reversed and prevented if caught early enough. While Professor Brodaty says there is no cure for most types of dementia and no known way to prevent it, we can certainly delay the onset of it. “There are certain risk factors that make it more or less likely to develop cognitive decline and dementia, including physical and social inactivity. Being inactive, not engaging in social activities, a poor diet and too much alcohol are all risk factors.” Even then, Professor Brodaty says, “it’s never too late to start, and never too early to start” making changes that maintain and protect your brain health into old age. Image credits: Getty Images

Mind

Climate change is set to make our holidays look very different – here’s how

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/nick-davies-313760">Nick Davies</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/glasgow-caledonian-university-913">Glasgow Caledonian University</a> Holidays are making a comeback after several years of disruption caused by the COVID pandemic. Nearly 4 billion passengers <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/564717/airline-industry-passenger-traffic-globally/">boarded international flights</a> in 2022, up from fewer than 2 billion in 2020. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09669582.2022.2162062">Recent research</a> suggests that people are likely to continue travelling more in 2023 and beyond. But this resurgence in travel is concerning. The tourism sector alone is responsible for an <a href="https://wttc.org/news-article/wttc-launches-groundbreaking-net-zero-roadmap-for-travel-tourism">estimated 8%–10%</a> of global greenhouse gas emissions. And conditions at traditional holiday destinations in high summer are becoming <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/14/travel/europe-heat-wave-tourists.html">increasingly unpleasant</a> if not <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jul/23/british-tourists-tell-of-nightmare-in-rhodes-fires-greece#:%7E:text=British%20tourists%20said%20they%20had,the%20Greek%20island%20of%20Rhodes.">downright hazardous</a>. During the past year, <a href="https://climate.copernicus.eu/july-2023-sees-multiple-global-temperature-records-broken">numerous climate records have been broken</a> as heatwaves and wildfires ravaged large parts of Europe, Asia and North America. In July, both Sardinia and Sicily experienced temperatures <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jul/15/italy-temperatures-48c-mediterranean-heatwave-hotter">in excess of 46°C</a>, nearly breaking European records. Most of what we do while on holiday, particularly on holidays abroad, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200218-climate-change-how-to-cut-your-carbon-emissions-when-flying#:%7E:text=Together%20with%20other%20gases%20and,of%20the%20world%20flies%20frequently">releases greenhouse gases</a> into the atmosphere and ultimately has an impact on the climate. But the way most of us get there – by flying – is potentially most damaging. UK data suggests that a single passenger on a short-haul flight, for instance, is responsible for releasing the <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/travel-carbon-footprint">equivalent of approximately 154g of CO₂</a> for every kilometre travelled. As the effects of climate change become increasingly severe, there’s genuine concern that traditional destinations will become too hot in summer to remain appealing to visitors. This raises the question: how will tourism adapt? <h2>Changing destinations</h2> Researchers have been trying to predict the future of tourism for quite some time. One idea is that tourism will undergo a “<a href="https://www.cisl.cam.ac.uk/system/files/documents/ipcc-ar5-implications-for-tourism-briefing-prin.pdf">poleward shift</a>” as global warming causes temperatures to rise not only in traditionally hot regions, but also in locations further to the north and south. A <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0047287506295937">modelling study</a> from 2007 predicted that, by 2050, hotter weather would make popular tourist hotspots like the Mediterranean less appealing in the summer. At the same time, northern destinations such as Scandinavia and the UK would experience longer holiday seasons. Approximately <a href="https://oceanpanel.org/opportunity/sustainable-coastal-marine-tourism">half of global tourism</a> is concentrated in coastal areas. So another concern is the potential loss of beaches due to rising sea levels. In the Caribbean, an <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09669582.2012.699063">estimated 29% of resort properties</a> would be partially or fully inundated by one metre of sea-level rise – though many of these resorts would have lost a significant amount of their beach area before this. Some other beach destinations are potentially even more vulnerable. Sardinia was hit by disruptive storms in 2022. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272771423000744">Research</a> suggests that the beaches there may struggle to accommodate tourists in the near future due to a greater risk of flooding and storms. The impact of climate change on tourism will extend beyond just coastal areas. Many popular city break destinations, including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301479722007344">Porto</a> in Portugal, are expecting to endure more severe heat. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09669582.2022.2112204">Tourism in mountainous areas</a> will be affected, too, as accelerated snow melt leads to shorter ski seasons. <h2>The practicalities of tourism shifting</h2> Changing conditions will affect where humans can safely travel to. But travel patterns take time to evolve. In the meantime, established destinations will need to change to withstand challenges such as extreme heat, rising sea levels and other climatic conditions. Existing tourist destinations in areas of the world that are vulnerable to the effects of climate change, such as the Nile Delta in Egypt, are already <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0964569121005068">considering ways to adapt</a>. These include building seawalls and natural dunes to protect tourist areas from coastal flooding. Changing construction materials and reconfiguring urban spaces to improve ventilation have also <a href="https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/environment/2021/10/19/beat-the-heat-how-to-make-buildings-in-the-middle-east-cooler/#:%7E:text=Traditionally%2C%20buildings%20in%20the%20Gulf,known%20for%20its%20wind%20towers.">been proposed</a> as ways to reduce reliance on expensive and energy-intensive air-conditioning. New destinations that begin to emerge in more temperate regions will require substantial infrastructure development to support the influx of visitors. This includes transport systems, accommodation, dining options and attractions. The process of establishing tourist destinations typically takes time and requires careful thought. Barcelona, for example, has experienced a <a href="https://stay-grounded.org/conference-degrowth/barcelona-a-city-exploited-by-tourism/">rapid surge in tourism demand</a> since the 1992 Olympics. This has resulted in a tenfold increase in visitors over the past three decades. Such rapid tourism development can <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/WHATT-02-2017-0005/full/html">put a strain on local people</a> and the environment. Although Barcelona already had a transport system and some infrastructure to accommodate visitors, the rapid growth in tourism has led to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/jun/25/tourists-go-home-refugees-welcome-why-barcelona-chose-migrants-over-visitors">strong opposition</a> from local residents. <h2>What will happen next year?</h2> The <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0047287520933679">current thinking</a> among tourism academics is that those responsible for managing tourist destinations should work towards reducing carbon emissions by focusing on the domestic market. But, as recent summers have shown, international tourism does not look set to slow down yet. Even amid crises such as the fires burning through Rhodes in summer 2023, tourists <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/aug/30/tourists-rhodes-maui-burned-travel">continued to arrive</a>. Rather than choose different destinations, the most likely scenario – at least in the short-term – is that tourists themselves will adapt to the effects of climate change. During Europe’s summer 2023 heatwave, there were reports that people were staying in their hotel rooms <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/14/travel/europe-heat-wave-tourists.html">in the hottest part of the day</a> and taking sightseeing trips in the evening. Nevertheless, there are some signs that travellers may be starting to worry about more extreme weather conditions and adapt their travel plans accordingly. A survey conducted in May 2023 showed that <a href="https://etc-corporate.org/uploads/2023/07/2023_ETC_MSIET_Results_Wave_16.pdf">69% of Europeans</a> planned to travel between June and November – a fall of 4% compared to 2022. The heatwave of summer 2023 might mean that tourists start looking for <a href="https://www.schengenvisainfo.com/news/extreme-heat-prompts-tourists-to-seek-cooler-alternatives-to-europe/">cooler destinations</a> as early as the coming year. The evolving landscape of global tourism in the face of climate change is complex. What is clear, though, is that if Europe continues to experience extreme weather conditions like the summer of 2023, many people will think twice about booking their place in the sun. <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/nick-davies-313760">Nick Davies</a>, Lecturer and Programme Leader, BA International Tourism and Events Management, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/glasgow-caledonian-university-913">Glasgow Caledonian University</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-set-to-make-our-holidays-look-very-different-heres-how-212474">original article</a>.

Travel Trouble

How biological differences between men and women alter immune responses – and affect women’s health

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/helen-mcgettrick-1451122">Helen McGettrick</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-birmingham-1138">University of Birmingham</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/asif-iqbal-1451123">Asif Iqbal</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-birmingham-1138">University of Birmingham</a> Most people will have heard the term “man flu”, which refers to men’s perceived tendency to exaggerate the severity of a cold or a similar minor ailment. What most people may not know is that, generally speaking, women mount stronger <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36121220/">immune responses</a> to infections than men. Men are <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1005374">more susceptible</a> to infections from, for example, HIV, hepatitis B, and Plasmodium falciparum (the parasite responsible for malaria). They can also have more severe symptoms, with evidence showing they’re more likely to be <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1005374">admitted to hospital</a> when infected with hepatitis B, tuberculosis, and Campylobacter jejuni (a bacteria that causes gastroenteritis), among others. While this may be positive for women in some respects, it also means women are at <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri2815">greater risk</a> of developing chronic diseases driven by the immune system, known as immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Here we will explore how biological factors influence immune differences between the sexes and how this affects women’s health. While we acknowledge that both sex and gender may affect immune responses, this article will focus on biological sex rather than gender. <h2>Battle of the sexes</h2> There are differences <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri.2016.90">between the sexes</a> at every stage of the immune response, from the number of immune cells, to their degree of activation (how ready they are to respond to a challenge), and beyond. However, the story is more complicated than that. Our immune system evolves throughout our lives, learning from past experiences, but also responding to the physiological challenges of getting older. As a result, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri.2016.90">sex differences</a> in the immune system can be seen from birth through puberty into adulthood and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jleuko/qiad053/7190870">old age</a>. Why do these differences occur? The first part of answering this question involves the X chromosome. Females have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome. The <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20651746/">X chromosome</a> contains the largest number of immune-related genes. The X chromosome also has <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00018-020-03526-7">around 118 genes</a> from a gene family that are able to stop the expression of other genes, or change how proteins are made, including those required for immunity. These gene-protein regulators are known as microRNA, and there are only <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24808907/">two microRNA genes</a> on the Y chromosome. The X chromosome has <a href="https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/fact-sheets/X-Chromosome-facts">more genes overall</a> (around 900) than the Y chromosome (around 55), so female cells have evolved to switch off one of their X chromosomes. This is not like turning off a light switch, but more like using a dimmer. Around <a href="https://bmcgenomics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12864-019-5507-6">15-25% of genes</a> on the silenced X chromosome are expressed at any given moment in any given cell. This means female cells can often express more immune-related genes and gene-protein regulators than males. This generally means a faster clearance of pathogens in females than males. Second, men and women have <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2020.604000/full">varying levels</a> of different sex hormones. Progesterone and testosterone are broadly considered to limit immune responses. While both hormones are produced by males and females, progesterone is found at higher concentrations in non-menopausal women than men, and testosterone is much higher in men than women. The role of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6533072/">oestrogen</a>, one of the main female sex hormones, is more complicated. Although generally oestrogen <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S000887491500026X?via%3Dihub">enhances immune responses</a>, its levels vary during the menstrual cycle, are high in pregnancy and low after menopause. Due in part to these genetic and hormonal factors, pregnancy and the years following are associated with heightened immune responses to external challenges such as infection. This has been regarded as an <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri.2016.90">evolutionary feature</a>, protecting women and their unborn children during pregnancy and enhancing the mother’s survival throughout the child-rearing years, ultimately ensuring the survival of the population. We also see this pattern in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2628977/">other species</a> including insects, lizards, birds and mammals. <h2>What does this all mean?</h2> With women’s heightened immune responses to infections comes an increased risk of certain diseases and prolonged immune responses after infections. An <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3328995/">estimated 75-80%</a> of all immune-mediated inflammatory diseases <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32542149/">occur in females</a>. Diseases more common in women include multiple sclerosis, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri2815">rheumatoid arthritis</a>, lupus, Sjogren’s syndrome, and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri.2016.90">thyroid disorders</a> such as Graves disease. In these diseases, the immune system is continuously fighting against what it sees as a foreign agent. However, often this perceived threat is not a foreign agent, but cells or tissues from the host. This leads to tissue damage, pain and immobility. Women are also prone to chronic inflammation following infection. For example, after infections with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5818468/">Epstein Barr virus</a> or <a href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/jwh.2008.1193">Lyme disease</a>, they may go on to develop <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/chronic-fatigue-syndrome-cfs/">chronic fatigue syndrome</a>, another condition that affects more women than men. This is one possible explanation for the heightened risk among <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fresc.2023.1122673/full">pre-menopausal women</a> of developing long COVID following infection with SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID. Research has also revealed the presence of auto-antibodies (antibodies that attack the host) in patients with long COVID, suggesting it might be an <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1568997221000550">autoimmune disease</a>. As women are more susceptible to autoimmune conditions, this could potentially explain the sex bias seen. However, the exact causes of long COVID, and the reason women may be at greater risk, are yet to be defined. This paints a bleak picture, but it’s not all bad news. Women typically mount <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24966191/">better vaccine responses</a> to several common infections (for example, influenza, measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis A and B), producing higher antibody levels than men. One study showed that women vaccinated with half a dose of flu vaccine produced the same amount of antibodies compared to men vaccinated with <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/773453">a full dose</a>. However, these responses <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri.2016.90">decline as women age</a>, and particularly <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3954964/">after menopause</a>. All of this shows it’s vital to consider sex when designing studies examining the immune system and treating patients with immune-related diseases.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208802/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/helen-mcgettrick-1451122">Helen McGettrick</a>, Reader in Inflammation and Vascular Biology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-birmingham-1138">University of Birmingham</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/asif-iqbal-1451123">Asif Iqbal</a>, Associate Professor in Inflammation Biology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-birmingham-1138">University of Birmingham</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-biological-differences-between-men-and-women-alter-immune-responses-and-affect-womens-health-208802">original article</a>.

Body

Is red meat bad for you? And does it make a difference if it’s a processed burger or a lean steak?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/katherine-livingstone-324808">Katherine Livingstone</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/deakin-university-757">Deakin University</a> A juicy burger is a staple in many Australians’ diet. Yet research shows regularly eating red meat can increase your risk of developing <a href="https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/eurheartj/ehad336/7188739?searchresult=1">type 2 diabetes, heart disease</a> and <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanonc/article/PIIS1470-2045(15)00444-1/fulltext">certain cancers</a>. But is eating a beef burger worse for your health than eating a lean grass-fed steak? And how much red meat should we really be eating? <h2>Types of red meat</h2> First of all, it’s good to clarify that <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240074828">red meat</a> refers to all mammalian muscle meat. So that includes beef, lamb, pork, veal, mutton and goat. Then we can distinguish red meat types by how the animal has been raised and how the meat is processed. Here are some key terms to know. Conventional meat, also called grain-fed, is meat from animals that are grass-fed for part of their lives and then given a grain-based diet for the remainder. Most red meat available in major supermarkets is grain-fed. Grass-fed meat comes from animals that have grazed on pasture for their entire lives. This means grass-fed meat tends to have higher levels of unsaturated fats than conventional meat, and is why some <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/11/5/646">research</a> suggests it’s healthier. Grass-fed meat is also likely to cost more. Organic meat is seen as a premium product as it has to meet <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/export/controlled-goods/organic-bio-dynamic/national-standard">government standards</a> for organic produce. For example, meat labelled as organic cannot use synthetic pesticides or use hormones or antibiotics to stimulate growth. Processed meats have been preserved by smoking, curing or salting, or by adding chemical preservatives. Examples include sausages, ham, bacon and hot dogs. <h2>What is the nutritional value of red meat?</h2> <a href="https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/food-essentials/five-food-groups/lean-meat-and-poultry-fish-eggs-tofu-nuts-and-seeds-and">Red meat</a> contains many nutrients that are important for health, including protein, vitamin B12, iron and zinc. Red meat is a good source of iron and zinc as they are more easily absorbed by the body from meat than from plant foods. Red meat is often high in saturated fats, but this can <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/ausnut/ausnutdatafiles/Pages/foodnutrient.aspx">range widely</a> from less than 1% to over 25% depending on the cut and whether it’s trimmed of fat or not. Minced meat typically ranges from 2% to 9% saturated fat depending on whether its extra lean or regular. To limit intake of saturated fats, opt for leaner mince and leaner cuts of meat, such as pork tenderloins or beef steak with the fat trimmed off. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5243954/">Wagyu beef</a> (which simply translates to Wa = Japanese and Gyu = cow) has been touted as a healthier alternative to conventional red meat, as it tends to be higher in unsaturated fats. But research is limited, and ultimately it still contains saturated fat. Processed meats, such as bacon, salami and sausages, contain beneficial nutrients, but they are also high in saturated fat, sodium and contain preservatives. <h2>Is red meat bad for your health? And does the type matter?</h2> It’s widely reported eating too much red meat is bad for your health, because it can increase your risk of heart disease, type 2 diabetes and some cancers. But most of the evidence for this comes from observational studies, which cannot determine whether red meat intake actually causes the condition. Most evidence is observational because it’s simply not ethical or feasible to ask someone to eat large amounts of meat every day for many years to see if they develop cancer. So let’s take a look at the evidence: Heart disease and type 2 diabetes In a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-022-01968-z">review</a> of 37 observational studies, the authors found weak evidence of an association between eating unprocessed red meat and heart disease and type 2 diabetes. But for processed meat, a recent <a href="https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/44/28/2626/7188739">review</a> showed that for each additional 50g of processed meat consumed per day, the risk of heart disease increased by 26% and the risk of type 2 diabetes increased by 44%, on average. Cancer Leading international organisations have declared there’s strong evidence consumption of red and processed meat <a href="https://www.wcrf.org/diet-activity-and-cancer/cancer-prevention-recommendations/limit-red-and-processed-meat/">increases the risk of colorectal cancer</a>. For example, in a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ije/article/49/1/246/5470096">study</a> of nearly 500,000 people, each additional 50g of red meat consumed per day increased the risk of colorectal cancer by 18%. And each additional 25g of processed meat consumed per day, equivalent to a slice of ham, increased the risk by 19%. While <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34455534/">research</a> has linked consumption of red and processed meat with increased risk of other types of cancer, such as lung, pancreatic and breast, the evidence is not consistent. It also matters how red meat is cooked. For example, cooking a steak over a high heat, especially an open flame, chars the outside. This causes <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/diet/cooked-meats-fact-sheet">chemical compounds</a> to form that have been shown to cause cancer in very high doses in animal models, and some studies in humans have found an <a href="https://aacrjournals.org/cebp/article/16/12/2664/260099/Meat-and-Meat-Mutagen-Intake-and-Pancreatic-Cancer">association</a> with increased cancer rates. When it comes to how the animal was raised or its breed, based on current evidence, it’s unlikely the nutritional differences will have a substantial impact on human health. But research is limited in this area. <h2>How much red meat should you eat?</h2> Our national <a href="https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n55a_australian_dietary_guidelines_summary_book.pdf">dietary guidelines</a> recommend the average adult eats a maximum of 455g of cooked lean red meat per week (or less than 65g a day, equivalent to one small lamb chop). This is also what’s recommended by the national <a href="https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/diet-and-exercise/meat-and-cancer-risk">Cancer Council</a>. For heart health specifically, the national <a href="https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/getmedia/d5b9c4a2-8ccb-4fe9-87a2-d4a34541c272/Nutrition_Position_Statement_-_MEAT.pdf">Heart Foundation</a> recommends eating less than 350g of cooked, unprocessed red meat per week (or less than 50g a day). Many dietary guidelines around the world now also recommend limiting red meat consumption for environmental reasons. To optimise both human nutrition and planetary health, the <a href="https://eatforum.org/lancet-commission/eatinghealthyandsustainable/">EAT-Lancet commission</a> recommends consuming no more than 98g a week of red meat and very low intakes of processed meat. <h2>So what does all of this mean for your diet?</h2> The bottom line is that red meat can still be enjoyed as part of a <a href="https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/food-essentials/five-food-groups/lean-meat-and-poultry-fish-eggs-tofu-nuts-and-seeds-and">healthy diet</a>, if not eaten in excess. Where possible, opt for unprocessed or lean cuts, and try to grill less and roast more. Consider swapping red meat for lean chicken or fish occasionally too. If you are looking for alternatives to meat that are better for your health and the environment, minimally processed plant-based alternatives, such as tofu, beans and lentils, are great options.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207927/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/katherine-livingstone-324808">Katherine Livingstone</a>, NHMRC Emerging Leadership Fellow and Senior Research Fellow at the Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/deakin-university-757">Deakin University</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-red-meat-bad-for-you-and-does-it-make-a-difference-if-its-a-processed-burger-or-a-lean-steak-207927">original article</a>.

Food & Wine

What actually is palliative care? And how is it different to end-of-life care?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/samar-aoun-1437641">Samar Aoun</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-western-australia-1067">The University of Western Australia</a> Although it is associated with dying, palliative care is an approach focused on improving <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6405258/#:%7E:text=QOL%20can%20also%20be%20defined,QOL%20(2%E2%80%934).">quality of life</a> – or how people feel about and respond to facing a life-threatening illness. Palliative care aims to prevent and relieve physical, social, emotional, spiritual and existential distress. Palliative care also supports family caregivers during the disease journey and bereavement phase. You might have heard it mentioned for cancer, but it is beneficial for the majority of life-limiting conditions. It has been shown to reduce health-care costs by <a href="https://palliativecare.org.au/publication/kpmg-palliativecare-economic-report/">preventing</a> unnecessary hospital admissions. Palliative care is not voluntary assisted dying. It does not aim to hasten or prolong death. It is not just for people who are about to die and seeking palliative care does not mean “giving up”. In fact, it can be a profound and positive form of care that the World Health Organization (WHO) has <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/palliative-care">recognised</a> as a basic human right. But what does it involve? <h2>Not just for someone’s final days</h2> Palliative care is often seen as a “last resort” rather than a service that empowers terminally ill people to live as well as possible for as long as possible. The full benefit of this holistic approach can only be realised if people are referred early to <a href="https://palliativecare.org.au/resource/what-is-palliative-care/">palliative care</a> – ideally from the time they are diagnosed with a terminal illness. Unfortunately, this rarely happens and palliative care tends to blur with <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/providing-comfort-end-life">end-of-life care</a>. The latter is for people who are likely to die within 12 months but is often left to the last few weeks. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/qMbq0fP9kr4?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>Palliative is not just for the very end of someone’s life.</figcaption></figure> <h2>Palliative care can involve difficult conversations</h2> Palliative care provides a time to ask some usually taboo questions. What kind of death do you want to experience? Who is in your personal network? How will they respond to your life ending? What kind of support can they offer? Palliative care can be provided at home, hospital, hospice or residential aged care facility, depending on the preference and circumstances of patients and their family carers. In general, patients are referred by their treating specialist, health professional or GP. Patient preferences for care and what matters most to them are discussed with their doctor or other health professionals and with their loved ones with <a href="https://www.advancecareplanning.org.au/">advance care planning</a>. These discussions can include information on their preferred place of care, preferred place of death, personal care needs such as dietary preferences and religious and spiritual practices. This helps those caring to make decisions about the patient care when the patient cannot anymore. However, advance care planning can start at any time in life and without a diagnosis. <h2>How palliative care delivery has changed</h2> Once upon a time, we were born at home and we died at home. Death was a social event with a medical component. Now it is close to the opposite. But research indicates a solely clinical model of palliative care (mainly symptom management funded through the health system) is <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/9/12/1615">inadequate</a> to address the complex aspects of death, dying, loss and grief. A <a href="https://www.phpci.org/">public health</a> palliative care approach views the community as an equal partner in the long and complex task of providing quality health care at the end of someone’s life. It promotes conversations about patients’ and families’ goals of care, what matters to them, their needs and wishes, minimising barriers to a “good death”, and supporting the family post-bereavement. These outcomes require the involvement of family carers, friendship networks and not-for-profit organisations, where more detailed conversations about life and death can happen, instead of the “pressure cooker” rushed environment of hospitals and clinics. Investment could develop stronger <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29402101/">death literacy</a> and grief literacy in the community and among health professionals, who may be <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6312518/#:%7E:text=Some%20struggle%20with%20the%20limitations,lead%20in%20opening%20a%20dialogue">reluctant</a> to raise or discuss these topics. This would likely see the take up of advance care planning increase, from the current low levels of <a href="https://www1.racgp.org.au/newsgp/clinical/advance-care-planning-in-an-ageing-population#:%7E:text=A%20paper%20exploring%20the%20cognitive,advance%20health%20directive%20in%20place.">less than 15%</a> of Australians (<a href="https://theconversation.com/only-25-of-older-australians-have-an-advance-care-plan-coronavirus-makes-it-even-more-important-144354">25% of older Australians</a> accessing health and aged-care facilities). One such successful approach is the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9720808/">Compassionate Communities Connectors Program</a> in Western Australia, using trained <a href="https://comcomnetworksw.com/compassionate-connectors-program/">community volunteers</a> to enhance the social networks of terminally ill people. Our research trial trained 20 community volunteers (“connectors”) and 43 patients participated over 18 months. In sourcing others to help (who we called “caring helpers”), connectors built the capacity of the community and social networks around patients in need. Caring helpers assisted with transport, collecting prescriptions, organising meals and linked clients to community activities (such as choirs, walking groups, men’s shed). And they helped complete advance care planning documentation. About 80% of patients’ needs were social, particularly around reducing feelings of isolation. Patients in the trial had fewer hospital admissions and shorter hospital stays. <h2>Tailored to need</h2> Palliative care should be tailored to each person, rather than a one-size-fits-all clinical model that doesn’t respect autonomy and choice. Many people are dying in a way and a place that is not reflective of their values and their end-of-life is interrupted with preventable and costly admissions to hospital where control and even dignity are surrendered. Palliative care hospitalisations have <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/palliative-care-services/palliative-care-services-in-australia/contents/summary">increased</a> in recent years compared to all hospitalisations, with 65% of such admissions ending with the patient dying in hospital. It is unrealistic and unaffordable to have a palliative care service in every suburb. There needs to be a shift to a more comprehensive, inclusive and sustainable approach, such as Compassionate Communities, that recognises death, dying, grief and loss are everyone’s business and responsibility.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205488/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/samar-aoun-1437641">Samar Aoun</a>, Perron Institute Research Chair in Palliative Care, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-western-australia-1067">The University of Western Australia</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-actually-is-palliative-care-and-how-is-it-different-to-end-of-life-care-205488">original article</a>.

Caring

What do the different colours of mould mean in my house?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michael-taylor-228803">Michael Taylor</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/flinders-university-972">Flinders University</a> You may be interested (or possibly horrified) to discover you ingest and inhale thousands of tiny life forms on a daily basis. The air and surfaces around you are home to multitudes of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B978012394805200004X">bacteria, fungi, viruses</a>, mites, algae and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0043135400004206">protozoa</a>. Your skin isn’t much better, with a complex ecosystem of organisms called commensals which aren’t necessarily good or bad, but will shift in their composition depending on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11053">where you live</a>, <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9284/6/1/2">the products you use</a> and <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/458">the pets you have</a>. Most of these creatures are generally undetectable due to their microscopic size and low concentrations. But when they find a niche they can exploit, you might notice them by their smell, or the appearance of unwanted staining and colour changes. A lot of this fungal growth is what we call mould. We’ve all been disappointed in ourselves at one time or another, lifting a neglected orange out of the fruit bowl to discover the bottom half is covered in a velvety blue-green growth. But what do the myriad colours that appear on our stuff tell us about the world we try not to think about? <h2>Black</h2> Often black staining is quite a disturbing occurrence. The concept of toxic black mould is one many people have become aware of due to <a href="https://theconversation.com/fungi-after-the-floods-how-to-get-rid-of-mould-to-protect-your-health-111341">flood impacts</a>. A quick online search will likely terrify you, but not all black discolouration is due to the same organisms, and almost none of it will outright cause you harm. Stachybotrys is the one known as toxic black mould. It often turns up on <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/pdf/10.1289/ehp.99107s3505">building materials that have been wet for a long time</a>. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A severely mouldy wall covered in grey and black blotches" /></a><figcaption></figcaption>When the grout in your shower turns black though, that’s a different fungus called <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajb/article/view/130453">Aureobasidium</a>. It’s slimy, sticky and somewhere between a filamentous mould, which grows threadlike roots through whatever it’s eating, and a yeast, which prefer a free-floating, single-celled style of life.</figure> Bleaching will often kill Aureobasidium, but the dark pigmentation will likely hang around – harmlessly, but stubbornly. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A close-up of white grout between grey tiles with black spots on it" /></a></figure> <h2>Blue</h2> That blue orange I mentioned before, you can thank Penicillium for that. The organism that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168160512000852">gives us blue cheese</a> and the antibiotic penicillin is also responsible for producing a dense growth of mould that almost looks like smoke when disturbed, spreading millions of spores onto the rest of your fruit bowl. Penicillium is a big group with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166061620300129">hundreds of species</a>, ranging from recognised pathogens to species yet to be named. However, the ones that turn up in our homes are generally the same “weed” species that simply cause food spoilage or grow in soil. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="Close-up of a bright orange with a fuzzy blue mould spot on it" /></a></figure> <h2>Yellow and orange</h2> We often think of fungi as organisms that thrive in the dark, but that’s not always true. In fact, some need exposure to light – and ultraviolet (UV) light in particular – to complete their life cycle. Many plant pathogens use UV light exposure as a trigger to produce their spores, and then protect their DNA by <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0003683814020094">hiding it behind melanin-containing shells</a>. Stemphylium and Epicoccum turn up in our homes from time to time, often hitching a ride on natural fibres such as jute, hemp and hessian. They produce a spectrum of staining that can often turn damp items yellow, brown or orange. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A piece of wood laminate with yellow patches on it" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> We’re all fairly familiar with the green spots that turn up on mouldy bread, cake and other food items. Often we try to convince ourselves if we just cut off the bad bit, we can still salvage lunch. Sadly that’s not the case, as the roots of the fungi – collectively called mycelium – spread through the food, digesting and collecting sufficient nutrients to pop out a series of tiny fruiting bodies which produce the coloured spores you see. The green tuft is often from a group of fungi called Aspergillus. Under the microscope they look rather like the puffy top of a dandelion gone to seed. Like Penicillium, Aspergillus is another big fungal group with lots of species that turn up virtually in every environment. Some are <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mmy/article/43/Supplement_1/S87/1748298">heat tolerant</a>, some <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21553769.2015.1033653">love acid</a> and some will happily produce spores that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1749461311000406">stay airborne for days to months at a time</a>. In the green gang is also a fungus called Trichoderma, which is Latin for “hairy skin”. Trichoderma produces masses of forest-green, spherical spores which tend to grow on wet cardboard or dirty carpet. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A pile of green grains on a small round tray" /></a></figure> <h2>Pink, purple and red</h2> There are plenty to speak of in this category. And there is also a common bacterium that makes the list. Neurospora, also known as the red bread mould, is one of the most studied fungi in scientific literature. It’s another common, non-hazardous one that has been used as <a href="https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.3732/ajb.1400377">a model organism</a> to observe fungal genetics, evolution and growth. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A block of orange mouldy substance sitting on a banana leaf" /></a><figcaption></figcaption>Fusarium is less common indoors, being <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261219416302794">an important crop pathogen</a>, but will sometimes turn spoiled rice purple. It also occasionally turns up on wet cement sheet, causing splotchy violet patches. Fusarium makes large, sticky, moon-shaped spores that have evolved to spread by rain splashes and hang onto plants. However, it is fairly bad at getting airborne and so doesn’t tend to spread very far from where it’s growing.</figure> Finally in this category, that pink scum that turns up around bathroom taps or in the shower? It’s actually a bacterium called Serratia. It will happily chew up the soap scum residue left over in bathrooms, and has been shown to <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/full/10.1128/AEM.02632-10">survive in liquid soaps and handwash</a>. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="Close-up of white tile grout covered in a pink translucent film" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <h2>White</h2> When fungi were first being classified and were eventually given their own phylogenetic kingdom, there were lots of wonderful and not strictly categorical ways we tried to split them up. One of these was hyaline and non-hyaline, essentially referring to transparent and coloured, respectively. One of the interesting non-pigmented moulds you may well catch sight of is a thing called Isaria farinosa (“farinosa” being Latin for “floury”). This fungus is a parasite of some moths and cicadas and is visible as brilliant white, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09583150802471812">tree-shaped growths on their unfortunate hosts</a>. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A dead bug on a green forest floor with white and yellow growths sticking out of it" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> So when you notice the world around you changing colour, you can marvel with your newfound knowledge at the microscopic wonders that live complex lives alongside yours. Then maybe clean it up, and give the fruit bowl a wash. <img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207737/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> Image credit: Getty / Shutterstock <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michael-taylor-228803">Michael Taylor</a>, Adjunct academic, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/flinders-university-972">Flinders University</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-do-the-different-colours-of-mould-mean-in-my-house-207737">original article</a>.

Home & Garden

Big hair? Bald? How much difference your hair really makes to keep you cool or warm

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/theresa-larkin-952095">Theresa Larkin</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-wollongong-711">University of Wollongong</a> We have <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-why-does-womens-hair-thin-out-39126">millions</a> of hair follicles on our body, including around 100,000 on our scalp. This might sound like a lot of hair, yet humans are described as “hairless”. We have evolved to be the only mammals with a relatively hairless body, but still with scalp hair. So how does your hair affect your body temperature when it’s hot or cold? Compared with other animals, our hair does not have as much influence on keeping us warm or cool as you might think. <h2>Essential to our survival</h2> Our brain function and body’s metabolism depend on an optimal temperature of around 37℃. Thermoregulation maintains this body temperature, even when we are exposed to a hotter or colder external temperature. For non-human mammals, body hair or fur plays a role in protecting against environmental cold or heat. For instance, a heavy fur coat helps keep a polar bear <a href="https://polarbearsinternational.org/polar-bears-changing-arctic/polar-bear-facts/adaptions-characteristics/">warm</a> in the cold. But fur also keeps an animal cool in the heat because it can <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25064866">absorb or reflect</a> radiant heat. Scientists think this is why humans have kept hair on our heads. Our heads are exposed to the most heat from the sun, and scalp hair keeps our heads cool. Research published just last week <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2301760120">suggests</a> curly hair provides the best heat protection. That’s because curly hair’s thicker layer of insulation reduces the amount of sun that reaches the scalp. <h2>But hair is not the only factor</h2> When humans moved from living in the jungle to the savannah, they needed to walk and run long distances in the sun. This meant they needed a way to handle the increased body temperature that comes with physical activity in the heat. Sweating is the best way to lose heat and cool down, but the presence of hair reduces sweating and heat loss from the skin. So humans evolved to <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1113915108">lose body hair</a> to be better adapted to exercising in the heat. Fewer hair follicles in our skin made room for more sweat glands. This made our skin optimal for sweat evaporation – and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-keep-cool-on-hot-summer-days-heres-how-34489">heat loss</a> that goes with it – to keep us cool. <h2>So what’s best in the heat?</h2> You might think removing body hair or having a bald head is best for sweating and keeping cool when exercising in the heat. However, it’s not that simple. Removing head hair would increase the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2301760120">amount of sun</a> that reaches your scalp. This means you would need to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20683812/">sweat more</a> during exercise in the sun to reduce an increase in body temperature, but not by much. In fact, it’s the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4667044/#:%7E:text=The%20body%20hair%20is%20advantageous,heat%20removal%20during%20heat%20stress.">least hairy</a> areas of our body that have the highest sweat rates during exercise. These are our forehead, neck, feet and hands. So the best way to keep cool in the heat is to keep these areas uncovered (but still use sunscreen). Removing body hair will not have a large impact on your overall sweat rate. <h2>How about when it’s cold?</h2> Our body hair and head hair theoretically have a role in keeping us warm, but the effects are minimal. When we are cold, the muscles of the hair follicles on the body contract to cause the hairs to stand straight. This is an attempt to trap heat close to the body and we see this as goosebumps. However, because our body hair is so thin, this does not have a big effect in keeping us warm. Our head hair can prevent some heat loss from the head, but again this is limited. When it’s cold, heat can still be lost through the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4667044/#:%7E:text=The%20body%20hair%20is%20advantageous,heat%20removal%20during%20heat%20stress.">skin of the head</a> regardless of your hairstyle. The scalp also has only a very thin layer of fat compared to the rest of our skin, so our head has less insulation to protect against the cold. A warm hat or beanie is the only way to prevent too much heat lost from the head. <h2>In a nutshell</h2> Our head and body hair, or lack of it, does have a small role in how you maintain your body temperature. But overall, your hairstyle does not influence whether you feel warm or cool.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201380/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/theresa-larkin-952095">Theresa Larkin</a>, Associate professor of Medical Sciences, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-wollongong-711">University of Wollongong</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/big-hair-bald-how-much-difference-your-hair-really-makes-to-keep-you-cool-or-warm-201380">original article</a>.

Beauty & Style

Perfect perfume or eau de cat’s bum? Why scents smell different and 4 fragrance tips

Mother’s Day is coming up in Australia and that means a surge in perfume sales. Of course, scents are purchased year-round and not just for mothers. Fragrance sales in Australia will amount to <a href="https://www.statista.com/outlook/cmo/beauty-personal-care/fragrances/australia%5D">over A$1 billion</a> this year. The word “perfume” is derived from the Latin per fumus, meaning “through smoke”. The <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Mendeleyevs-Dream-Elements-Paul-Strathern/dp/0312262043">very first account</a> of using perfumes dates back to 1200 BC when a <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Women_of_Science.html?id=S7DaAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y">woman called Tapputi</a> mixed flowers, oils and various plants with water or solvents, then extracted their fragrance. The basis of this technique for making perfume is still used today. But how do we smell? What makes perfume appealing? And why does it smell differently on different people? <h2>The science of smell</h2> A sense of smell is vital to all species on Earth. One <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/elephants-may-have-best-noses-earth">study</a> identified African elephants as having the “best noses” in the animal kingdom, not to mention the longest ones. It can help animals sniff out danger, food and mates. For humans, too, being able to smell is not just for the enjoyment of pleasant odours. It can also protect us from toxic chemicals with noxious smells, such as <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ershdb/emergencyresponsecard_29750038.html#:%7E:text=Hydrogen%20cyanide%20(AC)%20gas%20has,as%20a%20solution%20in%20water.">hydrogen cyanide</a>. When something has an odour, it means it is chemically volatile – vaporising from a liquid to a gas. When we smell a scent, gas molecules enter our nose and stimulate specialised nerve cells called <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-do-we-smell-104772">olfactory sensory neurons</a>. When these neurons are triggered, they send a signal to the brain to identify the chemicals. Humans have around 10 million of those neurons and around <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1905909/">400 scent receptors</a>. The human nose can distinguish at least <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/human-nose-can-detect-trillion-smells#:%7E:text=These%20are%20only%20three%20of,never%20been%20explicitly%20tested%20before.">1 trillion different odours</a>, from freshly brewed coffee to wet dog to mouldy cheese. The more volatile a compound is the lower its boiling point and, from a chemical perspective, the weaker the forces holding the molecules together. When this is the case, more molecules enter the gaseous state and the smell is more intense. <h2>What makes things smell good though?</h2> Different classes of chemical compounds can have more pleasant or offensive scents. Fish and decaying animal cells, for example, release chemicals called <a href="https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/BridgeValley_Community_and_Technical_College/Fundamentals_of_Chemistry/11%3A_Organic_Chemistry/11.15%3A_Amines#:%7E:text=Amines%20generally%20have%20rather%20pungent,odor%20associated%20with%20dead%20fish.">amines</a>, which don’t smell appealing. Fruits, on the other hand, are composed of chemicals in a class of organic compounds called aldehydes, esters and ketones, which have sweeter and <a href="https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Sacramento_City_College/SCC%3A_CHEM_330_-_Adventures_in_Chemistry_(Alviar-Agnew)/09%3A_Organic_Chemistry/9.08%3A_Carboxylic_Acids_and_Esters#:%7E:text=Esters%20occur%20widely%20in%20nature,fragrances%20of%20fruits%20and%20flowers.">more pleasant odours</a>. Chemists have been able to identify the <a href="https://jameskennedymonash.wordpress.com/2014/01/04/table-of-organic-compounds-and-their-smells-revised-edition/">specific chemical smells</a> released by substances we encounter in everyday life. <h2>Smells different</h2> So it makes sense that pleasant-smelling aldehydes, ketones and esters are used to create perfumes. However, some perfumes also contain unusual ingredients that don’t smell nice on their own. For example, Chanel No. 5 perfume – the iconic 100-year-old favourite – contains civet as one of its base chemical notes. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1973/04/15/archives/a-boycott-of-chanel-no-5-urged-by-humane-groups.html">Civet</a> is used by perfumers for its <a href="https://theconversation.com/civet-musk-a-precious-perfume-ingredient-is-under-threat-steps-to-support-ethiopian-producers-and-protect-the-animals-193469">long-lasting, musky scent</a>. It is traditionally extracted from the anal glands of <a href="https://slate.com/technology/2012/07/chanel-no-5-a-brain-parasite-may-be-the-secret-to-the-famous-perfume.html">civet cats</a> but Chanel has used a synthetic form of civet <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/99a13235-cdb9-431b-b8f1-e52ce4a10486">since 1998</a>. <h2>Tips for choosing and using perfumes</h2> Our ability to smell a perfume will depend on two factors: how well our olfactory sensory neurons are performing (a virus or infection could affect function, for example) and the volatility of the chemicals in the perfume. 1. Try before you buy You can’t really do much about your sensory neurons, but you can increase the intensity of perfumes, such as by warming up the perfume on your skin or applying to pulse points. This will help to give molecules more energy and increase the number of molecules entering the gaseous state. Specific perfumes will not smell the same on different people’s skin because the chemicals in them can be affected by the skin’s type and condition (dry or oily, acidic or base) and even their diet. Some foods we eat, such as garlic, are released from our bodies through our skin. Those chemicals can mask perfume chemicals. So, it is better to buy someone their tried and true favourite scent rather than risking a new one. And those department store sample sprays can be useful to try before you buy. 2. Moisturise before use When you spray perfume on very dry skin, some of the perfume’s chemicals – the large organic ones that are similar to skin’s natural oils – are absorbed by the skin and then into the sebaceous glands. When some notes in a perfume are absorbed this way, it can take on a different smell. That’s also why it’s better to moisturise skin before spraying perfume, so perfume chemicals stay on the skin for longer. 3. Experiment with spraying techniques To avoid changes in the scent of your favourite perfume and increase the time the perfume stays on you, you could spray your hair instead. Your hair is porous so perfume molecules might remain there longer. However, most perfumes contain alcohol, which dries out hair. Spraying perfume directly onto a hairbrush first, then brushing your hair, might prevent some of this drying effect. <a href="https://www.byrdie.com/how-to-apply-perfume">Spraying then walking</a> through a mist of perfume so the chemicals settle on your hair, skin and clothes might work – but you risk losing a lot of precious perfume with that technique. 4. Keep it cool Temperature will <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5674095_Effect_of_Temperature_on_the_Floral_Scent_Emission_and_Endogenous_Volatile_Profile_of_Petunia_axillaris">affect volatility</a>. To keep perfumes lasting longer in the bottle, keep them in the fridge or cool dark place and tightly sealed to prevent your expensive, heat-sensitive scent evaporating into thin air. This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/perfect-perfume-or-eau-de-cats-bum-why-scents-smell-different-and-4-fragrance-tips-203905" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>. Images: Getty

Beauty & Style

Anxious dogs have different brains to normal dogs, brain scan study reveals

Dog ownership is a lot of furry companionship, tail wags and chasing balls, and ample unconditional love. However, some dog owners are also managing canine pals struggling with mental illness. A newly published study <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0282087">in PLOS ONE</a> has examined the brain scans of anxious and non-anxious dogs, and correlated them with behaviour. The research team at Ghent University, Belgium, found that our anxious dog friends not only have measurable differences in their brains linked to their anxiety, but these differences are similar to those found in humans with anxiety disorders as well. <h2>Anxious friends</h2> Anxiety disorders in humans are varied and can be categorised into several main types. Overall, they represent high levels of fear, emotional sensitivity and negative expectations. These disorders can be difficult to live with and sometimes difficult to treat, in part due to how varied and complex anxiety is. Researching anxiety in animals can help us to understand what drives it, and to improve treatment for both humans and animals. The new study sought to investigate possible pathways in the brain that are associated with anxiety in dogs. Understanding this could both improve treatment for anxiety in veterinary medicine, and reveal similarities with what we know of human anxiety. Dogs with and without anxiety were recruited for functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans of their brains. Dogs have been involved in awake fMRI studies before, but for this one, with dogs that might get easily stressed out, the dogs were under general anaesthesia. Owners of the dogs also filled out surveys on their pets’ behaviour. The researchers performed data analysis and modelling of brain function, focusing on regions of the brain likely to show differences related to anxiety. Based on previous research on animal and human anxiety, the team dubbed these brain regions the “anxiety circuit”. They then analysed whether there were differences between the brain function of anxious and non-anxious dogs, and if those differences actually related to anxious behaviours. <h2>Different brains</h2> The researchers found there were indeed significant differences between anxious and non-anxious dogs. The main differences were in the communication pathways and connection strength within the “anxiety circuit”. These differences were linked with higher scores for particular behaviours in the surveys as well. For example, anxious dogs had amygdalas (an area of the brain associated with the processing of fear) that were particularly efficient, suggesting a lot of experience with fear. (This is similar to findings from human studies.) Indeed, in the behaviour surveys, owners of anxious dogs noted increased fear of unfamiliar people and dogs. The researchers also found less efficient connections in anxious dogs between two regions of the brain important for learning and information processing. This may help explain why the owners of the anxious dogs in the study reported lower trainability for their dog. <h2>A difficult time</h2> Brains are exquisitely complex biological computers, and our understanding of them is far from comprehensive. As such, this study should be interpreted cautiously. The sample size was not large or varied enough to represent the entire dog population, and the way the dogs were raised, housed, and cared for could have had an effect. Furthermore, they were not awake during the scans, and that also may have influenced some of the results. However, the study does show strong evidence for measurable differences in the way anxious dog brains are wired, compared to non-anxious dogs. This research can’t tell us whether changes in the brain caused the anxiety or the other way around, but anxiety in dogs is certainly real. It’s in the interests of our anxious best friends that we appreciate they may be affected by a brain that processes everything around them differently to “normal” dogs. This may make it difficult for them to learn to change their behaviour, and they may be excessively fearful or easily aroused. Thankfully, these symptoms can be treated with medication. Research like this could lead to more finessed use of medication in anxious dogs, so they can live happier and better adjusted lives. If you have a dog you think might be anxious, you should speak to a veterinarian with special training in behaviour. Image credit: Shutterstock This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/anxious-dogs-have-different-brains-to-normal-dogs-brain-scan-study-reveals-201775" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>.

Family & Pets

Jetlag hits differently depending on your travel direction. Here are 6 tips to get over it

After a few difficult years of lockdowns and travel restrictions, people are finally winging their way across the globe again; families are being reunited and sights are being seen. Yet the joys of international travel often come with a side of jetlag, which can make it hard to initially enjoy a holiday, and to settle in once you return home. Why do people experience jetlag? And is there anything you can do to lessen its effects? <h2>What causes jetlag?</h2> The term “jetlag” describes the physical and cognitive symptoms people experience when travelling quickly across several timezones. Before you leave for a trip, you’re synchronised to your local time. Once you enter a new timezone, your body’s rhythms are no longer lined up with the clock on the wall. That’s when jetlag symptoms hit. You’re sleepy when you want to be awake, and wide awake when you want to be asleep. You’re hungry in the middle of the night, and might feel bloated or nauseous if you eat during the day. Until your body clock and all the rhythms it controls line up with the new local time, you are physiologically and mentally discombobulated. Not a happy holiday vibe! <h2>Jetlag isn’t the same for everyone</h2> Interestingly, the experience of jetlag varies between people. That’s because we all tick along to our own internal rhythm. Most of us have a natural daily cycle of about 24.2 hours. So if we lived in a cave and didn’t see any light, our sleep/wake cycle and other daily rhythms would tick along at about 24.2 hours. Researchers think <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsfs.2019.0098">this is an evolutionary adaptation</a> that allows us to adjust to different day lengths across the year. But some people have slightly longer cycles than others, and this may play a role in how a person experiences jetlag. <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000418">Research suggests</a> if you have a longer cycle you might adjust quicker to westward travel, such as when travelling from Australia to South Africa, but we don’t know if a shorter cycle helps going the other way. We also get a little less resilient as we age, so the older among us might have worse jetlag symptoms. <h2>Does direction of travel matter?</h2> More generally, many people find westward travel, where you “gain” time, a bit easier. Say Jasmine and Sarah depart Adelaide at the same time. Jasmine lands in Perth in the afternoon, where it’s about 2.5 hours earlier in the day. She sees some sights and easily falls asleep at about 8.30pm local time. She then wakes up very early and starts her day. Because Jasmine’s body clock naturally delays – shifting a little later relative to the local time each day – after a few days she is fully synchronised. Sarah, meanwhile, lands in Auckland which is about 2.5 hours later in the day. She takes advantage of the balmy evening and some of the night, and is wide awake until 2am. She then struggles out of bed when the alarm goes off at 7am, because it’s still 4.30am on her body clock. Sarah will likely feel the effects of jetlag more severely than Jasmine, and for longer. <h2>Is jetlag just ‘psychological’?</h2> Some people might wonder if jetlag is just in your head. Well, in a way it is, because it’s a mismatch between your body’s internal time (which is determined in your brain) and your local time. But that doesn’t mean you can talk yourself out of jetlag. It’s better thought of as a physiological condition, rather than a psychological one. Luckily, there are a few simple ways to alleviate jetlag symptoms and help your body clock adjust. This is particularly important <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-021-01502-0">for elite athletes</a> who travel to compete. <ol> <li> First, decide whether it’s worth trying to adapt to the new time or not. If it’s only a short trip, it might make more sense to stay on your home time. If it’s longer than three days, start consciously moving your own rhythms – such as when you sleep, eat, exercise and get sunlight – towards the new timezone. </li> <li> If you’re trying to shift your body clock, it’s a good idea to start on the plane. Set your watch to your destination’s timezone and line up your activities accordingly. </li> <li> Keep caffeine and alcohol intake low on the journey. This will be better for sleep and hydration, and will help with adjusting your body clock to the new timezone. </li> <li> When adjusting to a new timezone, try to sleep during the local night time and just rest when you need to at other times. Short naps can give you a boost to get through the day and evening activities. Aim for about 30 minutes and avoid naps later in the day as you near your actual planned bedtime. </li> <li> Gastrointestinal discomfort is a symptom of jet lag. If you’re prone to or experience tummy trouble while travelling, stick to small meals and eat when you’re hungry. Your body will tell you when it’s ready for food. Tip 3 about caffeine and alcohol applies here too. </li> <li> Get outside. Sunlight is key to adjusting to a new timezone. Depending on your timezone change, appropriately-timed <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2019.00927/full">outside activities</a> will help. </li> </ol> If that’s not enough, the Sleep Health Foundation has more tips <a href="https://www.sleephealthfoundation.org.au/tips-to-help-combat-jet-lag.html">here</a>. Images: Getty Images This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/jetlag-hits-differently-depending-on-your-travel-direction-here-are-6-tips-to-get-over-it-196730">The Conversation</a>.

International Travel

"It's been a tough year": Jimmy Barnes reveals very different Christmas plans

Jimmy Barnes has shared how he and his family will be spending Christmas after a tumultuous year of family losses. Talking to <a href="https://www.nowtolove.com.au/parenting/celebrity-families/jimmy-barnes-grandchildren-75773" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Australian Women's Weekly</a>, the legendary singer shared how this festive season will be a poignant one for the Barnes family. "It's been a tough year," Jimmy said simply. The Barneses have lost many of their closest friends and family over the last few months, including Jimmy's great mates from the music business, Mushroom Records founder Michael Gudinski, Warren Costello (Mushroom executive and true friend with whom Jimmy worked closely, daily for decades) and Pierre Baroni (friend, photographer and creative co-conspirator). Then they lost Jimmy's sister, Linda, and Jane's mother, Kusumphorn Visuthipol. "It all started with Michael," he explains. "When Michael left, it was such a shock. Since then, we've lost about seven people who were really close to us, who we weren't expecting to lose, including Warren, one of the nicest people in the world, and Pierre, who was like part of our family." "We were just so close. Warren and Linda and Jane's mum died within two weeks of each other. It was just horrendous. It sort of took the wind out of my sails." As a result of the devastating losses, Jimmy said their family Christmas will look very different this year. In years prior, the Barnes family would host extravagant celebrations where everyone was welcome, and would party into the night. This year however, they are planning something much more low-key. "Jane and I are going away for Christmas, by ourselves. It's because we lost Jane's mum and I think the idea of her not being here for Christmas is very difficult for us to deal with. So, we're going to Thailand to visit the temple where we left her ashes, but also to get a bit of air. Our kids are big now. They're doing their own Christmases. I just need to sit on the beach and hold my girl." Unfortunately, since Jimmy made the plans for his trip abroad, he was diagnosed with serious back and hip injuries that have forced him to cancel his summer touring schedule and his holiday in Thailand, meaning he will be forced to spend some of his Christmas break in hospital. Image credits: Australian Women's Weekly

Family & Pets

This is the difference between dementia and Alzheimer’s

There are around 50 million people living with dementia worldwide, according to the World Health Organization. While dementia and Alzheimer's disease are often used interchangeably, there are important differences between them. Here’s what you need to know. Dementia vs. Alzheimer’s Here’s the first thing you need to know: how to tell the difference between dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Dementia is an umbrella term for symptoms like impaired memory and thinking that interferes with daily living; Alzheimer’s disease is a specific type of dementia. Other types of dementia include vascular dementia, dementia with Lewy bodies, frontotemporal dementia, Parkinson’s disease, and Huntington’s disease. “Alzheimer’s is the most common form of dementia – about 60 to 70 per cent of the time, a patient with dementia has Alzheimer’s,” says Dr Richard Isaacson, Director of the Alzheimer’s Prevention Clinic at NewYork-Presbyterian/Weill Cornell Medical Center. The reason you hear about Alzheimer’s most often is not only because it is the most common type of dementia, but also because the science behind Alzheimer’s is the most advanced across all dementias,” explains Dr Isaacson. Causes of dementia are vastly different A medical illness, metabolic issue (like a nutritional or thyroid problem), vascular disease (like a stroke), or, rarely, infectious diseases can affect brain cells, causing dementia. Even mad cow disease, which is very rare, can contribute to dementia, says Dr Isaacson. A condition called depressive “pseudo” dementia is another possible source. As he explains, when levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin run low, you may have trouble paying attention. And when you’re distracted, you have trouble remembering things, which can manifest as dementia. On the other hand, Alzheimer’s has its own origins. It’s a brain disease marked by deposits of beta-amyloid plaques and proteins called tau that damage cells in brain regions that control functions like thinking, memory, and reasoning. Multiple factors can be at play There’s also what’s called mixed dementia, meaning there are multiple conditions that can come together to cause dementia. “Thirty percent of the time, patients who have Alzheimer’s also have a vascular disease that makes cognitive symptoms worse,” says Dr Isaacson. Alzheimer’s and dementia with Lewy bodies (in this disease, clumps of alpha-synuclein proteins develop in the brain) have also been found to occur together. Symptoms can look very similar Losing your keys – again – and forgetting where you parked are basic memory problems, so how do you know when it crosses the line to dementia or Alzheimer’s? According to the Alzheimer’s Association, in order for a person to be diagnosed with dementia, two of the following must be “significantly impaired”: memory, communication and language, the ability to focus and pay attention, reasoning and judgment, and visual perception. When it comes to Alzheimer’s, you may forget new information or find that you have to ask family members to remember important facts you should be able to keep track of yourself. (It’s not those little brain blips where you can’t remember the name of your second cousin and then it comes to you later – that’s normal). Research published in the Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease in 2016 also indicates that difficulty using a map may be one of the earliest warning signs of Alzheimer’s. You may be able to prevent Alzheimer’s “We have the Alzheimer’s Prevention Clinic, and the fact that you can talk about those words together is advanced,” says Dr Isaacson. The clinic investigates how lifestyle choices – a healthy diet, exercise, social and mentally stimulating activities, as well as everyday habits, and ample sleep can markedly reduce your risk of Alzheimer’s. In fact, in a study in 2014 published in the Lancet Neurology, reducing certain risk factors can decrease the risk of Alzheimer’s by 33 per cent. The most important ways to prevent Alzheimer’s: Control diabetes and high blood pressure, reduce weight if obese, stay active, treat depression, don’t smoke, and stay in school. The Lancet, in a 2017 article, also notes that staying social (spending time with friends and family members) and managing hearing loss have been shown to be among the controllable factors that may help prevent dementia. Treatment options depend on the type of dementia There are virtually no FDA-approved therapies for dementia (only one approved drug for Parkinson’s dementia), but there are four medications that target Alzheimer’s, according to Dr Isaacson. And while these drugs don’t stall disease progression (or cure the disease), they can help control symptoms. Patients of Dr Isaacson’s say these drugs may help for six to nine months, but many stay on them for the long haul because they help with behavioural symptoms such as agitation and aggression. “When you stop the medications, the psychological symptoms get worse,” he says. As for other types of dementia, lifestyle changes may be the best option. Treatment for vascular dementia relies on doing things that are healthy for your arteries and heart: reducing blood pressure and cholesterol, and controlling diabetes. “Managing other chronic conditions is important,” says Dr Isaacson. “Those are a great way to press the fast-forward button on dementia.” You can find out if you’re at an increased risk of Alzheimer’s now If you get evaluated for Alzheimer’s, your doctor can make a diagnosis based on symptoms, a clinical history, and medical tests (to rule out causes like thyroid issues or nutritional deficiencies). Brain imaging tests like a cat scan or MRI can look for beta amylase plaques gunking up brain regions. You don’t have to be scared Forgetting how to work the remote in your home, being afraid to leave your neighbourhood out of fear you might not get home, or misplacing your belongings so often that it hurts your ability to get out the door can all be particularly worrisome – especially if a loved one expresses concern. If you’re worried, see your doctor, says Dr Issacson. “Get educated, get informed, get evaluated,” he says. “The earlier the diagnosis, the earlier you can be treated. And the earlier you’re treated, the better you’ll do.” Written by Jessica Migala. This article first appeared in <a href="https://www.readersdigest.co.nz/healthsmart/this-is-the-difference-between-dementia-and-alzheimers" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Reader’s Digest</a>. For more of what you love from the world’s best-loved magazine, <a href="http://readersdigest.innovations.co.nz/c/readersdigestemailsubscribe?utm_source=over60&utm_medium=articles&utm_campaign=RDSUB&keycode=WRA87V" target="_blank" rel="noopener">here’s our best subscription offer.</a> Image: Getty Images

Mind

Surprising differences in how we use credit cards and cash

With more credit cards used by Kiwis than ever is definitely seems as though New Zealanders are addicted to the convenience of not having to pay with cash. But what is the impact of this on New Zealand consumer behaviour? Since the late 1990’s researchers have been interested in understanding the psychology behind credit card use, not least because of the proliferation of debt in the consumer market and the concern of the ease with which to gains these cards (and debt) preys on vulnerable consumers. A 1998 study conducted by George Lowenstein and his colleagues that was published in 2001 made the finding that payments with cash elicited quite a different emotional response to payments made with credit cards or any other payment methods where the actual payment is to a certain extent “delayed”. The suggestion is paying by traditional methods with cash requires a physical transaction that can be more painful than paying for something with credit, where you see a figure on the receipt but you’re not actually handing over a physical amount of money in real life. In another experiment as part of the project, Mr Lowenstein observed that people were willing to pay much more for a particular event with credit cards than with cash, with the premium ranging anywhere between 60 and 113 per cent more, which represents quite a significant difference. Similar research has also found people are more likely to spend money when given $50 in cash rather than $50 in a gift voucher, they were more likely to spend a higher proportion of that in the latter rather than the former, which is again probably because of the lack of physical exchange. So what does this mean for you? Well, if you’re looking to tighten your purse strings around the house, opting to make more purchases with cash might just be the best way to do it. By making your purchase with cash you’re statistically likely to be less likely to overspend and more mindful of the items you are actually buying, which could lead to significant savings down the track. Willpower can be hard, especially when shopping, but this is an easier way to make willpower happen. Image: Getty Images

Money & Banking

“There are different paths to justice”: Former choirboy’s father takes George Pell to court

Content warning: This article includes mentions of child sexual abuse (CSA). The father of a former choirboy allegedly abused by George Pell has launched a civil case against the cardinal and the Catholic Church. After being convicted of abusing two choirboys during his time as archbishop of Melbourne in the 1990s, Cardinal Pell was acquitted by the High Court in 2020, having served 13 months in prison before gaining his freedom. The father of one of the victims, who died of a drug overdose in 2014, was told about the alleged abuse by police a year after his son’s death, according to the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-14/george-pell-father-former-choirboy-civil-action-cardinal-church/101236968" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ABC</a>. He has now launched legal action against Cardinal Pell and the Catholic Archdiocese of Melbourne in the Supreme Court of Victoria for “damages for nervous shock” that were related to finding out about the allegations, according to the statement of claim lodged in court. The father, who cannot legally be named and has been given the pseudonym RWQ, and his solicitors from Shine Lawyers claim Cardinal Pell and the Archdiocese were negligent. They allege the cardinal is liable for RWQ’s mental injury because it would have been reasonably foreseeable that he would suffer from nervous shock after learning of the alleged abuse, and that the Archdiocese breached a duty of care to him. RWQ is claiming general damages, and special damages, and seeking compensation for “past loss of earning capacity and past and future medical and like expenses”, though the sum he is seeking will only be revealed if the matter goes to trial. Lisa Flynn, the Chief Legal Officer for Shine Lawyers, said the separate criminal case and High Court proceedings involving the cardinal won’t affect the civil case. “The High Court made some decisions in relation to the criminal prosecution against [George] Pell, our case is a civil case against George Pell and the Catholic Archdiocese,” she explained. “There are different paths to justice.” If you are in need of support you can contact Lifeline on 0800 54 33 54, or Safe to Talk on 0800 044 334 for support relating to sexual abuse. Image: Getty Images

Legal

Physio ‘dry needling’ and acupuncture – what’s the difference and what does the evidence say?

Physiotherapists are increasingly offering needling therapies in addition to their standard care. Many Australian <a href="https://australian.physio/research/prf/translation/five-facts-about-acupuncture-and-dry-needling-musculoskeletal-pain" target="_blank" rel="noopener">physiotherapists</a> in private practice now offer dry needling or Western medical acupuncture as part of a treatment approach. Is it just a fad or does science support it? <h2>Needling, three ways</h2> Physiotherapists can be trained to use dry needling, Western acupuncture and/or traditional acupuncture. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23801002/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Dry needling</a> involves penetrating the skin with needles to altered or dysfunctional tissue in order to improve or restore function. This often involves needling muscle trigger points to activate a reflexive relaxation of the muscle. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28739020/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Western acupuncture</a> uses traditional needling <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2005290110600143" target="_blank" rel="noopener">meridians</a> (the ancient idea of energy channels through the body) and trigger points. But these ideas are applied to Western understandings of anatomy. In Western acupuncture, points are stimulated to create local tissue changes, as well as spinal and brain effects. The goals is to trigger pain-relieving chemicals, muscle activation or relaxation. Even though traditional acupuncture points are used with this style of needling, Western acupuncture is not viewed as traditional Chinese medicine. <a href="https://healthtimes.com.au/hub/pain-management/44/research/kk1/acupuncture-for-pain-management/1581/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Traditional acupuncture</a> uses meridian lines or other points based on traditional Chinese medicine assessment methods and approaches. All physiotherapists trained in either acupuncture or dry needling meet safety standards which are viewed as within scope by the <a href="https://www.ahpra.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Australian Health Practitioners Regulatory Agency</a> and the <a href="https://www.physiotherapyboard.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Physiotherapy Registration Board</a>. These standards cover the level of training required, registration to practice and safety standards that include needle safety and hygiene to protect the public. Minor reported <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7015026/#:%7E:text=Examples%20of%20minor%20adverse%20reactions,pain%20during%20or%20after%20treatment." target="_blank" rel="noopener">side effects</a> related to acupuncture including pain and bleeding or bruising from needle insertion are fairly common. But major adverse events – pneumothorax (collapsed lung), excessive bleeding, prolonged aggravation – are rare. <h2>What’s needling good for?</h2> Research into the effectiveness of acupuncture and dry needling is variable. Some studies show comparable results between dry needling and acupuncture, while others show more favourable results for one or the other depending on the condition being treated. A <a href="https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001351.pub2/full?highlightAbstract=dry%7Cdri%7Cneedl%7Cneedling" target="_blank" rel="noopener">review</a> that assessed the effects of acupuncture and dry needling for the treatment of low-back pain found they may be useful add-on therapies but could not make firm conclusions due to a lack of quality trials. Another <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6600071/#CIT0034" target="_blank" rel="noopener">review</a> reported the growing popularity of dry needling world wide and across disciplines and points out that many questions still remain regarding the use of needling. For <a href="https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001218.pub3/full?highlightAbstract=acupuncture%7Cmigraine%7Cmigrain%7Cacupunctur" target="_blank" rel="noopener">migraine</a> and <a href="https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD007587.pub2/full?highlightAbstract=acupuncture%7Cheadach%7Ctension%7Cacupunctur%7Cheadache%7Ctype" target="_blank" rel="noopener">tension</a> headaches, experts say acupuncture seems to reduce the frequency and intensity of attacks – though more research is needed to compare it to other treatments. Acupuncture and dry needling may reduce pain and improve function for people with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17224820/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">neck pain</a>. A systematic review found significant differences between acupuncture and “sham acupuncture” (which is performed away from acupuncture points) when used to treat <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22965186/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">certain types of chronic pain</a>. However, some research only shows <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33066556/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">small and temporary</a> relief for neck pain with dry needling. Results from randomised control trials support the use of needling for <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27062955" target="_blank" rel="noopener">shoulder pain</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32301166/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">tennis elbow</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32186030/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">osteo arthritic knee pain</a>. But a recent systemic review of research reported only weak evidence to support needling to treat <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33760098/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">plantarfasciitis and chronic ankle instability</a>. <h2>Not just for sporting injuries</h2> Similarly, small randomised control trials have shown acupuncture and dry needling might reduce <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17095133/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">problematic jaw pain</a> (<a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/temporomandibular-disorder-tmd#:%7E:text=Temporomandibular%20disorders%20(TMD)%20are%20disorders,may%20result%20in%20temporomandibular%20disorder." target="_blank" rel="noopener">temporo mandibular disorder</a>) and improve mouth opening. Systematic reviews have reported needling and acupuncture were safe and effective recommendations for the treatment of broad conditions of <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/tendinopathy" target="_blank" rel="noopener">tendinopathy</a> (the breakdown of collagen in tendons) and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30787631/#:%7E:text=At%20follow%2Dup%20in%20the,for%20the%20management%20of%20FM." target="_blank" rel="noopener">fibromyalgia</a> (chronic pain in the muscles and bones). For women’s health, acupuncture has been shown to be effective for reducing pain with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29879061/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">periods</a>, compared to no treatment or non-steroidal pain relief medications – but the research had design limitations. Though <a href="https://www.cochrane.org/CD002962/PREG_acupuncture-or-acupressure-induction-labour#:%7E:text=Acupuncture%20involves%20the%20insertion%20of,with%20onset%20of%20labour%20contractions." target="_blank" rel="noopener">widely used</a> in pregnancy, research into the use of acupuncture to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32032444/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">induce labour</a> reports it may increase satisfaction with pain management and reduce pain intensity. But it may have little to no effect on the rates of caesarean or assisted vaginal birth. In summary, it appears needling techniques – whether dry needling or acupuncture – generally show positive effects over no treatment or “sham” treatments, but more research and high quality trials are needed. <h2>Just one part of a treatment program</h2> Needling <a href="https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001351.pub2/full?highlightAbstract=dry%7Cdri%7Cneedl%7Cneedlin" target="_blank" rel="noopener">may be useful</a> as part of multimodal care – that is, when <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4780149/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">more than one treatment</a> is used in conjunction to treat a problem. Physiotherapists may combine needling therapies with exercise prescription, hands-on care including massage, mobilisations and manipulations, and taping techniques. They may also employ therapies that apply external energy such as ultrasound, laser, transcutaneous (under the skin) electrical nerve stimulation and biofeedback. Finally, while the various needling techniques all use a filiform needle (with a solid filament as opposed to a hollow bore needle), the styles with each can be quite different. Ask what style of needling is being employed to treat you, and if you have a history of finding one style works better for you, discuss this with your practitioner. This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/physio-dry-needling-and-acupuncture-whats-the-difference-and-what-does-the-evidence-say-181939" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>. Image: Shutterstock

Body

Reader’s Respond: What’s different about growing up today from when you were growing up?

We asked you to take a trip down memory and reminisce about what has changed since growing up. From walking to school alone to not having social media, neighbours being like family to the point of not having to lock your front door – here are just some of the amazing and touching memories you shared. Faye Birtwistle - Safety. We were able to walk to school safely. Doors were never locked, you were able to sleep out on the veranda, neighbours were like family, we were taught respect for parents teachers police and adults. John Barbuto - We were very lucky there was no unsocial media, we actually spoke to each other. Yvonne Vishnich - We had boundaries and rules to abide by, if we didn't conform there was a punishment, grounded or not allowed something that was wanted. Manners had to be used and no answering back. Marje Brugel - We weren't reliant on technology and the need to constantly communicate. We wrote letters by hand and we relied on our own ability rather than a calculator. If our parents said "No", we knew they meant it and stress-related illness was rarely heard of. Jenni Champion - We were safe playing outside, no mobile phones, no TV, radios and used our imagination. Christine Rennie - Family values. Spending time together and grandparents were a special part of the family unit...sadly not anymore. Carolyn Zillman - So much stress in children’s lives today. We just lived our lives really not knowing what was going on around us. We enjoyed being kids knowing our parents were looking after us. The pressure on children today is tremendous and everything is so expensive to be involved in. Joy Flint - We had so much freedom after school and enjoyed playing without TV or internet always obeyed parents and teachers. Samantha Elliott - I didn't get a phone until I was 11, we spent most days outside, played with our cousins and went swimming once a week. Sharon Hemus - We had freedom to be kids. Patricia Phillips-Johnson - Fewer choices, you ate at meals no matter what it was…no snacks, no screens, you wore what was on the chair…generally hand me downs. Sue Smith - We spent more time outside playing seeing friends. Image: Shutterstock

Retirement Life

What made Bob Saget’s Danny Tanner so different from other sitcom dads

Bob Saget, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/09/arts/television/bob-saget-dead.html">who died on Jan. 9, 2022</a>, is probably best remembered for his role as Danny Tanner on the popular sitcom “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0092359/">Full House</a>,” which aired from 1987 to 1995. I think fans of the show have such fond memories of this character because Danny exemplified what it meant to “be there” as a parent. A single dad whose wife had passed away, he was eager to lend an ear to daughters D.J., Stephanie and Michelle, offering them support and reassurance through the twists and turns of childhood and adolescence. Why heap so much praise on a sitcom dad? It’s easy to disregard TV as mere mindless entertainment. But entertainment media can both reflect and reshape culture – including how fathers interact with their children. <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1990-25264-001">They can influence how viewers think about fathers</a>, regardless of the accuracy of those portrayals. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=GzIcrG8AAAAJ&hl=en">As someone who studies stereotypes of fathers</a>, I view Danny as an avatar of the changing expectations of fatherhood that began in the late 1970s. <h2>Danny Tanner and ‘being there’</h2> Danny Tanner was a 30-something widower when Full House premiered. That wasn’t a common situation for his demographic – <a href="https://www.census.gov/prod/1/pop/p20-365.pdf">less than 1% in his bracket shared it</a> – and it allowed viewers to watch Danny parent his three daughters with the help of his brother-in-law and his best friend. Nonetheless, in nearly every episode, viewers saw Danny “being there” for his family. “Being there” is a concept that describes <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=_gEDfhZp5s0C&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=promises+i+can+keep&ots=8ac2OWdjLK&sig=mnXZdjICi5BLnhGI-Np8UrcfGlc#v=onepage&q=promises%20i%20can%20keep&f=false">being physically and emotionally involved with your children</a>. This term took <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12376">on particular significance for fathers in the late 20th century</a>. “Being there” allowed dads to be seen as more than just financial providers and recognized that fathers interact with their children in varied and important ways. In the earlier part of the century, fathers were assumed to be breadwinners and not much else, a stereotype reflected in the era’s popular media. For example, sitcom fathers on “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0046600/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">Father Knows Best</a>,” which aired from 1954 to 1960, and “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0051267/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_3">The Donna Reed Show</a>,” which ended its run in 1966, bore little responsibility for actual child care beyond a pat on the head and some occasional discipline. Beginning in the 1970s, psychologist Michael Lamb encouraged a change in how we thought about fathers and broadened the definition of what he called “<a href="https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/271493">father involvement</a>.” Lamb proposed three dimensions of father involvement: engagement, availability and responsibility. The last of these, responsibility – which involved financial support and parental guidance – could be spotted in some form in the preceding sitcoms. But engagement and availability, which tend to involve day-to-day emotional support, were almost entirely foreign. Danny Tanner’s approach to fatherhood, by contrast, demonstrated perhaps the fullest realization of these changing expectations. One episode, “Back to School Blues,” featured oldest daughter D.J. starting junior high. Spoiler alert: <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YnIQu35CCDc">It doesn’t go well</a>. She’s teased by older girls, wears the same outfit as one of the teachers, and spends lunch alone. (I was a year younger than D.J., and this episode made me nervous about my own entry into junior high.) When Danny doesn’t approve of D.J.‘s attempts to look older to fit in and make friends, she storms off to her room saying she wants to be left alone. Danny says he can’t do that, and then listens as she explains everything that went wrong at school. In this short scene, he reinforced family rules and provided emotional support, while showing that he would “be there” for D.J. whenever she needed. <h2>A different kind of dad</h2> Though Danny represented a departure from the typical sitcom father, he didn’t exactly spearhead a new trend. Immature and irresponsible fathers – the kind seen in popular shows like “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0096697/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">The Simpsons</a>,” “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0101120/">Home Improvement</a>” and “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0092400/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">Married … With Children</a>” – were more commonplace. To this day, <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-sitcom-dads-still-so-inept-139737">the stereotype of the bumbling dad persists on TV</a>. <iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/wKf7i3DZi-c?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe> Danny comforts D.J. after she admits she isn’t happy with her body. <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2015-25403-001">In my research</a>, I found that single sitcom dads with full child care responsibilities were shown interacting with their children more often than married sitcom dads. Compared to their married counterparts on the tube, they were more likely to offer kindness, care, love, support and guidance. Along with Danny, these characters included Mr. Drummond on “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0077003/">Diff’rent Strokes</a>,” Tony Micelli in “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0086827/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">Who’s the Boss?</a>” and Maxwell Sheffield on “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0106080/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">The Nanny</a>.” On the other hand, married sitcom father-child interactions were more likely to involve criticism and sarcastic humor. In fact, married sitcom fathers often made jokes at their children’s expense. Why does this discrepancy exist? <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00473.x?casa_token=L_W94GXie6kAAAAA:hB5-n-UFrNCGS2C2vVjT1oBL8bdvSocrrzk99GlyY_oy_kOP6jzVByhxeyrDmKaLXMUmLOgMJ26YnVpC">My research has found</a> that in real life, married fathers are thought to be loving and kind but with room for improvement as parents. They’re seen as the right-hand man to mothers, who have taken the lead in parenting. Because of this, people expect more bumbling and less skill. Single dads, however, tend to be viewed as selfless and dedicated, because the assumption is that they’ve put their children above all else. Danny Tanner isn’t the novelty today that he was in the early 1990s. But if his character is instructive in any way, it’s that dads shouldn’t have to lose their wives to be the best parent they can be. <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jessica-troilo-752757">Jessica Troilo</a>, Associate Professor of Child Development and Family Studies, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/west-virginia-university-1375">West Virginia University</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-made-bob-sagets-danny-tanner-so-different-from-other-sitcom-dads-174754">original article</a>. Image: <a href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/promotional-portrait-of-the-cast-of-the-television-series-news-photo/3126220?adppopup=true" class="source">Lorimar Television/Fotos International via Getty Images</a>

‘Drained and wary of the future’: why you might feel different about New Year’s resolutions this year

At the beginning of each year, many people make vows to either do or not do something to improve their life in some way. The fresh start of a new year is magically equated with a fresh start to life and often imbued with renewed hope that this year things will be better. As we enter 2022, after two years of living with COVID-19, this hope may be stronger than usual. The pandemic’s impacts have ranged from deaths and other adverse effects on physical and mental health, to huge changes in employment, income, travel, leisure and the ability to socialise. The effect on individuals has varied considerably, depending on what their life was like beforehand, how much it has affected them personally, and their own resilience. Based on discussions with colleagues and patients, we may see resolutions driven by loss, guilt and anger, plus a rush on common types of self-improvement resolutions and a greater drive for overall life changes. Resilience How we respond to the shocks of the pandemic depends in part on our <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338" target="_blank">resilience</a>: the ability to adapt well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or significant sources of stress. It involves “bouncing back” from difficult experiences, and it can also involve personal growth. People who have lost loved ones to COVID may respond with New Year’s resolutions, but they may take positive or negative forms. Positive resolutions might be commitments to honour the deceased in some way, or to live well because your loved one cannot. A pact or vow made with or to a deceased loved one to “live life better” can be a powerful, positive motivator to change bad health habits such as smoking, excessive drinking or gambling, although professional help is advisable to ensure safe and lasting change. Negative resolutions, often driven by strong feelings of anger and despair, might be vows to seek revenge or punish those who may seem responsible for the death of their relative or friend. “Revenge resolutions” are not usually helpful adaptations and may spring from a sense of guilt arising from not being able to save their loved one or spend time with them. People who survived a COVID infection while a loved one did not, in particular, <a href="https://doi.apa.org/fulltext/2020-43452-001.html">often experience strong feelings of guilt</a>. Guilt-driven resolutions are driven by powerful emotions. They are likely to be realised in some form throughout the year, when hopefully the driving emotions become less intense by the following year. Personal improvement Since the virus has posed a major health risk, it would make sense for more people than ever to choose the New Year to resolve to improve their own health. Quitting smoking is a very common New Year’s resolution, and it seems even more sensible than usual amid a global pandemic of a virus that mainly attacks the respiratory system. However, as many people have found in the past, giving up cigarettes is very difficult and often requires significant planning and help to succeed. <img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436539/original/file-20211209-19-167gm8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" alt="" /> Quitting smoking or other drugs is a very common New Year’s resolution. But while the pandemic may have increased the desire for change, it won’t necessarily make it any easier to achieve. Shutterstock While the pandemic may have made the desire for change stronger, it does not magically make resolutions any easier to achieve. This applies similarly to resolutions to change the use of alcohol or other drugs, which would also benefit from planning and professional help. Weight loss is another favourite New Year’s resolution. The famous “COVID kilos” will no doubt drive more people than usual to resolve to lose weight in 2022. Crash diets are common, but are often abandoned by February. Careful eating and an exercise plan accompanying the resolution will make it more likely to succeed. Bigger changes While COVID is likely to give an extra edge to common resolutions, we are also likely to see a surge in resolutions for overall “lifestyle change”. Many people’s attitudes to work and family have changed dramatically over the past two years, due to travel restrictions, work or study from home, and little socialisation with those outside our immediate families. This hugely significant alteration in our way of life has caused many people to reconsider their futures. Many have found great enjoyment in spending time with family and are now rethinking their work–home balance. Discovering that working from home is possible has made many people reconsider their career options moving into 2022. Some <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-05-10/quit-your-job-how-to-resign-after-covid-pandemic" target="_blank">experts anticipate</a> a post-pandemic work exodus, dubbed the “great resignation”, in which millions of people, from frontline workers to senior executives, may resign from their jobs. <img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436541/original/file-20211209-68670-gy08bg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" alt="" /> As working from home has become more common, attitudes to work and family have shifted. Shutterstock According to <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/worklab/work-trend-index/hybrid-work" target="_blank">recent research</a> by Microsoft, more than 40% of the global workforce are considering leaving their employers. This trend is expected to be replicated in different industries in the USA, UK and Europe. In Australia, <a rel="noopener" href="https://theconversation.com/australias-great-resignation-is-a-myth-we-are-changing-jobs-less-than-ever-before-170784" target="_blank">this trend is not evident</a>, but nonetheless, a New Year’s resolution may be to determine a different type of employment for 2022 and beyond. Two paths for 2022 COVID-19 has left most of us drained and wary of the future. Many people believed the pandemic would end in 2020, but 2021 brought more infection, lockdowns and restrictions. In times of trauma, when the future is uncertain, there can be a polarisation of behaviours. Some people adopt a “devil may care, live for now” attitude to life, with greater risk taking. Others take the opposite attitude, and exercise extreme caution and narrow their existence further. Both groups may well make New Year’s resolutions to fit their approach to life.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important; text-shadow: none !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172305/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a rel="noopener" href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jayashri-kulkarni-185" target="_blank">Jayashri Kulkarni</a>, Professor of Psychiatry, <a rel="noopener" href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/monash-university-1065" target="_blank">Monash University</a> This article is republished from <a rel="noopener" href="https://theconversation.com" target="_blank">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a rel="noopener" href="https://theconversation.com/drained-and-wary-of-the-future-why-you-might-feel-different-about-new-years-resolutions-this-year-172305" target="_blank">original article</a>.

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What’s the difference between autism and Asperger’s disorder?

We talked to dozens of people about their experience of grief. Here’s what we learned (and how it’s different from what you might think)

What’s the difference between memory loss and dementia?

Climate change is set to make our holidays look very different – here’s how

How biological differences between men and women alter immune responses – and affect women’s health

Is red meat bad for you? And does it make a difference if it’s a processed burger or a lean steak?

What actually is palliative care? And how is it different to end-of-life care?

What do the different colours of mould mean in my house?

Big hair? Bald? How much difference your hair really makes to keep you cool or warm

Perfect perfume or eau de cat’s bum? Why scents smell different and 4 fragrance tips

Anxious dogs have different brains to normal dogs, brain scan study reveals

Jetlag hits differently depending on your travel direction. Here are 6 tips to get over it

"It's been a tough year": Jimmy Barnes reveals very different Christmas plans

This is the difference between dementia and Alzheimer’s

Surprising differences in how we use credit cards and cash

“There are different paths to justice”: Former choirboy’s father takes George Pell to court

Physio ‘dry needling’ and acupuncture – what’s the difference and what does the evidence say?

Reader’s Respond: What’s different about growing up today from when you were growing up?

What made Bob Saget’s Danny Tanner so different from other sitcom dads

‘Drained and wary of the future’: why you might feel different about New Year’s resolutions this year

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What’s the difference between autism and Asperger’s disorder?

We talked to dozens of people about their experience of grief. Here’s what we learned (and how it’s different from what you might think)

What’s the difference between memory loss and dementia?

Climate change is set to make our holidays look very different – here’s how

How biological differences between men and women alter immune responses – and affect women’s health

Is red meat bad for you? And does it make a difference if it’s a processed burger or a lean steak?

What actually is palliative care? And how is it different to end-of-life care?

What do the different colours of mould mean in my house?

Big hair? Bald? How much difference your hair really makes to keep you cool or warm

Perfect perfume or eau de cat’s bum? Why scents smell different and 4 fragrance tips

Anxious dogs have different brains to normal dogs, brain scan study reveals

Jetlag hits differently depending on your travel direction. Here are 6 tips to get over it

"It's been a tough year": Jimmy Barnes reveals very different Christmas plans

This is the difference between dementia and Alzheimer’s

Surprising differences in how we use credit cards and cash

“There are different paths to justice”: Former choirboy’s father takes George Pell to court

Physio ‘dry needling’ and acupuncture – what’s the difference and what does the evidence say?

Reader’s Respond: What’s different about growing up today from when you were growing up?

What made Bob Saget’s Danny Tanner so different from other sitcom dads

‘Drained and wary of the future’: why you might feel different about New Year’s resolutions this year

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