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Best-selling author diagnosed with "aggressive" brain cancer

Best-selling author Sophie Kinsella has shared that she has been fighting "aggressive" brain cancer since the end of 2022. The British writer took to Instagram to reveal she was diagnosed with glioblastoma 18 months ago, and shared why she chose to keep the devatstsing news out of the spotlight. The 54-year-old said she wanted to "make sure my children were able to hear and process the news in privacy and adapt to our new normal" before going public with her diagnosis. "I have been under the care of the excellent team at University College Hospital in London and have had successful surgery and subsequent radiotherapy and chemotherapy, which is still ongoing," she told her followers on Instagram. "At the moment all is stable and I am feeling generally very well, though I get very tired and my memory is even worse than it was before!" Kinsella said she is "so grateful to my family and close friends who have been an incredible support to me, and to the wonderful doctors and nurses who have treated me." She also thanked her readers for their "constant support", adding how the reception of her latest novel The Burnout, released in October 2023, "really buoyed me up during a difficult time." She ended her statement by saying, "To everyone who is suffering from cancer in any form I send love and best wishes, as well as to those who support them." "It can feel very lonely and scary to have a tough diagnosis, and the support and care of those around you means more than words can say." Image credits: Getty Images

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Does intermittent fasting have benefits for our brain?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/hayley-oneill-1458016">Hayley O'Neill</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> Intermittent fasting has become a popular dietary approach to help people lose or manage their <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8683964/">weight</a>. It has also been promoted as a way to reset metabolism, control chronic disease, slow ageing and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27810402">improve overall health</a>. Meanwhile, some research suggests intermittent fasting may offer a different way for the brain to access energy and provide protection against neurodegenerative diseases like <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11011-023-01288-2">Alzheimer’s disease</a>. This is not a new idea – the ancient Greeks believed fasting <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8839325/">enhanced thinking</a>. But what does the modern-day evidence say? <h2>First, what is intermittent fasting?</h2> Our <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35487190/">diets</a> – including calories consumed, macronutrient composition (the ratios of fats, protein and carbohydrates we eat) and when meals are consumed – are factors in our lifestyle we can change. People do this for cultural reasons, desired weight loss or potential health gains. Intermittent fasting consists of short periods of calorie (energy) restriction where food intake is limited for 12 to 48 hours (usually 12 to 16 hours per day), followed by periods of normal food intake. The intermittent component means a re-occurrence of the pattern rather than a “one off” fast. Food deprivation beyond 24 hours typically constitutes starvation. This is distinct from fasting due to its specific and potentially harmful biochemical alterations and nutrient deficiencies if continued for long periods. <h2>4 ways fasting works and how it might affect the brain</h2> The brain accounts for about <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-much-energy-do-we-expend-thinking-and-using-our-brain-197990">20% of the body’s energy consumption</a>. Here are four ways intermittent fasting can act on the body which could help explain its potential effects on the brain. 1. Ketosis The goal of many intermittent fasting routines is to flip a “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5913738/">metabolic switch</a>” to go from burning predominately carbohydrates to burning fat. This is called ketosis and typically occurs after 12–16 hours of fasting, when liver and glycogen stores are depleted. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493179/">Ketones</a> – chemicals produced by this metabolic process – become the preferred energy source for the brain. Due to this being a slower metabolic process to produce energy and potential for lowering blood sugar levels, ketosis can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10844723/">cause symptoms</a> of hunger, fatigue, nausea, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8754590/">low mood</a>, irritability, constipation, headaches, and brain “fog”. At the same time, as glucose metabolism in the brain declines with ageing, studies have shown ketones could provide an alternative energy source to <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aau2095">preserve brain function</a> and prevent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32709961/">age-related neurodegeneration disorders and cognitive decline</a>. Consistent with this, increasing ketones through <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31027873/">supplementation</a> or <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31757576/">diet</a> has been shown to improve cognition in adults with mild cognitive decline and those at risk of Alzheimer’s disease respectively. 2. Circadian syncing Eating at times that <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32480126/">don’t match our body’s natural daily rhythms</a> can disrupt how our organs work. Studies in shift workers have suggested this might also make us more prone to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22010477/">chronic disease</a>. Time-restricted eating is when you eat your meals within a six to ten-hour window during the day when you’re most active. Time-restricted eating causes changes in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36599299/">expression of genes in tissue</a> and helps the body during rest and activity. A 2021 <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7827225/">study of 883 adults</a> in Italy indicated those who restricted their food intake to ten hours a day were less likely to have cognitive impairment compared to those eating without time restrictions. 3. Mitochondria Intermittent fasting may provide <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35218914/">brain protection</a> through improving mitochondrial function, metabolism and reducing oxidants. Mitochondria’s <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Mitochondria">main role is to produce energy</a> and they are crucial to brain health. Many age-related diseases are closely related to an energy supply and demand imbalance, likely attributed to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-021-00626-7">mitochondrial dysfunction during ageing</a>. Rodent studies suggest alternate day fasting or reducing calories <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1038/jcbfm.2014.114">by up to 40%</a> might protect or improve <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21861096">brain mitochondrial function</a>. But not all studies support this theory. 4. The gut-brain axis The <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6469458/">gut and the brain communicate with each other</a> via the body’s nervous systems. The brain can influence how the gut feels (think about how you get “butterflies” in your tummy when nervous) and the gut can affect mood, cognition and mental health. In mice, intermittent fasting has shown promise for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5913738/">improving brain health</a> by increasing survival and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12354284/">formation of neurons</a> (nerve cells) in the hippocampus brain region, which is involved in memory, learning and emotion. There’s <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8470960/">no clear evidence</a> on the effects of intermittent fasting on cognition in healthy adults. However one 2022 study interviewed 411 older adults and found <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9646955/">lower meal frequency</a> (less than three meals a day) was associated with reduced evidence of Alzheimer’s disease on brain imaging. Some research has suggested calorie restriction may have a protective effect against <a href="https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/article/81/9/1225/7116310">Alzheimer’s disease</a> by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation and promoting vascular health. When we look at the effects of overall energy restriction (rather than intermittent fasting specifically) the evidence is mixed. Among people with mild cognitive impairment, one study showed <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26713821/">cognitive improvement</a> when participants followed a calorie restricted diet for 12 months. Another study found a 25% calorie restriction was associated with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30968820">slightly improved working memory</a> in healthy adults. But a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022316623025221?via%3Dihub">recent study</a>, which looked at the impact of calorie restriction on spatial working memory, found no significant effect. <h2>Bottom line</h2> Studies in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9740746/">mice</a> support a role for intermittent fasting in improving brain health and ageing, but few studies in humans exist, and the evidence we have is mixed. Rapid weight loss associated with calorie restriction and intermittent fasting can lead to nutrient deficiencies, muscle loss, and decreased immune function, particularly in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8749464/">older adults</a> whose nutritional needs may be higher. Further, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6314618/">prolonged fasting</a> or <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9042193/">severe calorie restriction</a> may pose risks such as fatigue, dizziness, and electrolyte imbalances, which could exacerbate existing health conditions. If you’re considering <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMra1905136?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">intermittent fasting</a>, it’s best to seek advice from a health professional such as a dietitian who can provide guidance on structuring fasting periods, meal timing, and nutrient intake. This ensures intermittent fasting is approached in a safe, sustainable way, tailored to individual needs and goals.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223181/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/hayley-oneill-1458016">Hayley O'Neill</a>, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/bond-university-863">Bond University</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-intermittent-fasting-have-benefits-for-our-brain-223181">original article</a>. Image: Getty

Body

Young boy beats rare brain cancer in world first

A 13-year-old boy from Belgium has become the first person in the world to be cured from a deadly brain cancer. Lucas Jemeljanova was only six-years-old when he was diagnosed with diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG), a rare and aggressive brain cancer which kills 98 per cent of sufferers within five years. He was randomly assigned to receive everolimus, a type of chemotherapy drug during a clinical trial. The drug is commonly used to treat kidney, pancreas, breast and brain cancer, but up to this point has not been successfully used to treat DIPG. Seven years later, Lucas has responded well to the treatment and has no trace of cancer, and has officially been in remission for five years. His doctor, Jacques Grill said that Lucas "beat the odds" and his case "offers real hope". Lucas was one of the first few people enrolled in the BIOMEDE trial in France, which was testing potential new drugs for DIPG. The drug works by preventing the cancer cells from reproducing and decreasing blood supply to the cancer cells, and it is an FDA approved prescription drug for cancer. Doctors were initially hesitant to stop the treatment until a year ago and a half ago. "I didn’t know when to stop, or how, because there was no reference in the world," Dr Grill told the AFP. "Over a series of MRI scans, I watched as the tumour completely disappeared," he added. Seven other children who were also in the trial have been considered "long responders", as they haven't had any relapses for three years after their diagnosis, but only Lucas was cured. The reason behind his complete recovery is still unknown, but it could be because of "biological particularities" in his tumour. "Lucas' tumour had an extremely rare mutation which we believe made its cells far more sensitive to the drug," Dr Grill added. DIPG is typically found in children between ages five and nine. The cause of the tumour is unknown but some of the first symptoms include problems with eye movement and balance, facial weakness, difficulty walking and strange limb movements. Researchers are currently trying to reproduce the difference seen in Lucas' cells. "Lucas is believed to have had a particular form of the disease," Dr Grill said. "We must understand what and why to succeed in medically reproducing in other patients what happened naturally with him." However Dr Grill said that this process won't be quick. "On average, it takes 10-15 years from the first lead to become a drug – it's a long and drawn-out process." Images: Facebook

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Does running water really trigger the urge to pee? Experts explain the brain-bladder connection

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/james-overs-1458017">James Overs</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/swinburne-university-of-technology-767">Swinburne University of Technology</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/david-homewood-1458022">David Homewood</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/melbourne-health-950">Melbourne Health</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/helen-elizabeth-oconnell-ao-1458226">Helen Elizabeth O'Connell AO</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/simon-robert-knowles-706104">Simon Robert Knowles</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/swinburne-university-of-technology-767">Swinburne University of Technology</a> We all know that feeling when nature calls – but what’s far less understood is the psychology behind it. Why, for example, do we get the urge to pee just before getting into the shower, or when we’re swimming? What brings on those “nervous wees” right before a date? Research suggests our brain and bladder are in constant communication with each other via a neural network called the <a href="https://www.einj.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.5213/inj.2346036.018">brain-bladder axis</a>. This complex web of circuitry is comprised of sensory neural activity, including the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. These neural connections allow information to be sent <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics12123119">back and forth</a> between the brain and bladder. The brain-bladder axis not only facilitates the act of peeing, but is also responsible for telling us we need to go in the first place. <h2>How do we know when we need to go?</h2> As the bladder fills with urine and expands, this activates special receptors detecting stretch in the nerve-rich lining of the bladder wall. This information is then relayed to the “periaqueductal gray” – a part of the brain in the brainstem which <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn2401">constantly monitors</a> the bladder’s filling status. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547931/original/file-20230913-19-2kgkhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547931/original/file-20230913-19-2kgkhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547931/original/file-20230913-19-2kgkhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547931/original/file-20230913-19-2kgkhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547931/original/file-20230913-19-2kgkhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547931/original/file-20230913-19-2kgkhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547931/original/file-20230913-19-2kgkhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547931/original/file-20230913-19-2kgkhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="" /></a><figcaption>The periaqueductal gray is a section of gray matter located in the midbrain section of the brainstem. <a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainstem#/media/File:1311_Brain_Stem.jpg">Wikimedia/OpenStax</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></figcaption></figure> Once the bladder reaches a certain threshold (roughly 250-300ml of urine), another part of the brain called the “pontine micturition centre” is activated and signals that the bladder needs to be emptied. We, in turn, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16254993/">register this</a> as that all-too-familiar feeling of fullness and pressure down below. Beyond this, however, a range of situations can trigger or exacerbate our need to pee, by increasing the production of urine and/or stimulating reflexes in the bladder. <h2>Peeing in the shower</h2> If you’ve ever felt the need to pee while in the shower (no judgement here) it may be due to the sight and sound of running water. In a 2015 study, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126798">researchers demonstrated</a> that males with urinary difficulties found it easier to initiate peeing when listening to the sound of running water being played on a smartphone. Symptoms of overactive bladder, including urgency (a sudden need to pee), have also been <a href="https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/environmental-cues-to-urgency-and-incontinence-episodes-in-chinesepatients-with-overactive-urinary-bladder-syndrome.html">linked to</a> a range of environmental cues involving running water, including washing your hands and taking a shower. This is likely due to both physiology and psychology. Firstly, the sound of running water may have a relaxing physiological effect, increasing activity of the parasympathetic nervous system. This would relax the bladder muscles and prepare the bladder for emptying. At the same time, the sound of running water may also have a conditioned psychological effect. Due to the countless times in our lives where this sound has coincided with the actual act of peeing, it may trigger an instinctive reaction in us to urinate. This would happen in the same way <a href="https://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html">Pavlov’s dog learnt</a>, through repeated pairing, to salivate when a bell was rung. <h2>Cheeky wee in the sea</h2> But it’s not just the sight or sound of running water that makes us want to pee. Immersion in cold water has been shown to cause a “cold shock response”, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19945970">which activates</a> the sympathetic nervous system. This so-called “fight or flight” response drives up our blood pressure which, in turn, causes our kidneys to filter out more fluid from the bloodstream to stabilise our blood pressure, in a process called “<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00864230">immersion diuresis</a>”. When this happens, our bladder fills up faster than normal, triggering the urge to pee. Interestingly, immersion in very warm water (such as a relaxing bath) may also increase urine production. In this case, however, it’s due to activation of the parasympathetic nervous system. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s004210050065">One study</a> demonstrated an increase in water temperature from 40℃ to 50℃ reduced the time it took for participants to start urinating. Similar to the effect of hearing running water, the authors of the study suggest being in warm water is calming for the body and activates the parasympathetic nervous system. This activation can result in the relaxation of the bladder and possibly the pelvic floor muscles, bringing on the urge to pee. <h2>The nervous wee</h2> We know stress and anxiety can cause bouts of nausea and butterflies in the tummy, but what about the bladder? Why do we feel a sudden and frequent urge to urinate at times of heightened stress, such as before a date or job interview? When a person becomes stressed or anxious, the body goes into fight-or-flight mode through the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. This triggers a cascade of physiological changes designed to prepare the body to face a perceived threat. As part of this response, the muscles surrounding the bladder may contract, leading to a more urgent and frequent need to pee. Also, as is the case during immersion diuresis, the increase in blood pressure associated with the stress response may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI102496">stimulate</a> the kidneys to produce more urine. <h2>Some final thoughts</h2> We all pee (most of us several times a day). Yet <a href="https://doi.org/10.5489/cuaj.1150">research has shown</a> about 75% of adults know little about how this process actually works – and even less about the brain-bladdder axis and its role in urination. <a href="https://www.continence.org.au/about-us/our-work/key-statistics-incontinence#:%7E:text=Urinary%20incontinence%20affects%20up%20to,38%25%20of%20Australian%20women1.">Most Australians</a> will experience urinary difficulties at some point in their lives, so if you ever have concerns about your urinary health, it’s extremely important to consult a healthcare professional. And should you ever find yourself unable to pee, perhaps the sight or sound of running water, a relaxing bath or a nice swim will help with getting that stream to flow.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210808/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/james-overs-1458017">James Overs</a>, Research Assistant, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/swinburne-university-of-technology-767">Swinburne University of Technology</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/david-homewood-1458022">David Homewood</a>, Urology Research Registrar, Western Health, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/melbourne-health-950">Melbourne Health</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/helen-elizabeth-oconnell-ao-1458226">Helen Elizabeth O'Connell AO</a>, Professor, University of Melbourne, Department of Surgery. President Urological Society Australia and New Zealand, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/simon-robert-knowles-706104">Simon Robert Knowles</a>, Associate Professor and Clinical Psychologist, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/swinburne-university-of-technology-767">Swinburne University of Technology</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-running-water-really-trigger-the-urge-to-pee-experts-explain-the-brain-bladder-connection-210808">original article</a>.

Mind

The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we’re sleeping?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/drew-dawson-13517">Drew Dawson</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/cquniversity-australia-2140">CQUniversity Australia</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/madeline-sprajcer-1315489">Madeline Sprajcer</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/cquniversity-australia-2140">CQUniversity Australia</a> Last night you probably slept for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352721816301292">seven to eight hours</a>. About one or two of these was likely in deep sleep, especially if you’re young or physically active. That’s because <a href="http://apsychoserver.psych.arizona.edu/jjbareprints/psyc501a/readings/Carskadon%20Dement%202011.pdf">sleep changes with age</a> and <a href="https://www.hindawi.com/journals/apm/2017/1364387/">exercise</a> affects brain activity. About three or four hours will have been spent in light sleep. For the remaining time, you were likely in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. While this is not the only time your brain is potentially dreaming – we also dream during other sleep stages – it is the time your brain activity is most likely to be recalled and reported when you’re awake. That’s usually because either really weird thoughts or feelings wake you up or because the last hour of sleep is nearly all <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Elizaveta-Solomonova/publication/320356182_Dream_Recall_and_Content_in_Different_Stages_of_Sleep_and_Time-of-Night_Effect/links/5a707bdb0f7e9ba2e1cade56/Dream-Recall-and-Content-in-Different-Stages-of-Sleep-and-Time-of-Night-Effect.pdf">REM sleep</a>. When dreams or your alarm wake you, you’re likely coming out of dream sleep and your dream often lingers into the first few minutes of being awake. In this case you remember it. If they’re strange or interesting dreams, you might tell someone else about them, which may further <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00426-022-01722-7">encode</a> the dream memory. Dreams and nightmares are mysterious and we’re still learning about them. They keep our brains ticking over. They wash the thoughts from the day’s events at a molecular level. They might even help us imagine what’s possible during our waking hours. <h2>What do scientists know about REM sleep and dreaming?</h2> It’s really hard to study dreaming because people are asleep and we can’t observe what’s going on. Brain imaging has indicated certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1087079216300673#sec3">patterns of brain activity</a> are associated with dreaming (and with certain sleep stages where dreams are more likely to occur). But such studies ultimately rely on self-reports of the dream experience. Anything we spend so much time doing probably serves multiple ends. At the basic physiological level (indicated by <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810021001409">brain activity, sleep behaviour and studies of conciousness</a>), all mammals dream – even the platypus and echidna probably experience something similar to dreaming (provided they are at the <a href="https://www.wired.com/2014/07/the-creature-feature-10-fun-facts-about-the-echidna/#:%7E:text=It%20was%20long%20thought%20that,re%20at%20the%20right%20temperature.">right temperature</a>). Their brain activity and sleep stages align to some degree with human <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810021001409#b0630">REM sleep</a>. Less evolved species do not. Some <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468867319301993#sec0030">jellyfish</a> – who do not have a brain – do experience what could physiologically be characterised as sleep (shown by their posture, quietness, lack of responsiveness and rapid “waking” when prompted). But they do not experience the same physiological and behavioural elements that resemble REM dream sleep. In humans, REM sleep is thought to occur cyclically every 90 to 120 minutes across the night. It prevents us from sleeping too deeply and being <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4972941/">vulnerable to attack</a>. Some scientists think we dream in order to stop our brains and bodies from getting too cold. Our core body temperature is typically <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laneur/article/PIIS1474-4422(22)00210-1/fulltext">higher while dreaming</a>. It is typically easier to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.2147/NSS.S188911">wake from dreaming</a> if we need to respond to external cues or dangers. The brain activity in REM sleep kicks our brain into gear for a bit. It’s like a periscope into a more conscious state, observing what’s going on at the surface, then going back down if all is well. Some evidence suggests “fever dreams” are far less common than we might expect. We actually experience <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00053/full">far less REM sleep</a> when we have a fever – though the dreams we do have tend to be <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3830719/">darker in tone and more unusual</a>. Spending less time in REM sleep when we’re feverish might happen because we are far less capable of regulating our body temperature in this stage of sleep. To protect us, our brain tries to regulate our temperature by “skipping” this sleep stage. We tend to have fewer dreams when the weather is hot <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/23744731.2020.1756664">for the same reason</a>. <h2>A deep-cleaning system for the brain</h2> REM sleep is important for ensuring our brain is working as it should, as indicated by studies using <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(17)31329-5.pdf">electoencephalography</a>, which measures brain activity. In the same way deep sleep helps the body restore its physical capacity, dream sleep “<a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(17)31329-5.pdf">back-flushes</a>” our neural circuits. At the molecular level, the chemicals that underpin our thinking are bent out of shape by the day’s cognitive activity. Deep sleep is when those chemicals are returned to their unused shape. The brain is “<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1241224">washed</a>” with cerebrospinal fluid, controlled by the <a href="https://theconversation.com/on-your-back-side-face-down-mice-show-how-we-sleep-may-trigger-or-protect-our-brain-from-diseases-like-als-181954">glymphatic system</a>. At the next level, dream sleep “tidies up” our recent memories and feelings. During <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC534695/">REM sleep</a>, our brains consolidate procedural memories (of how to do tasks) and emotions. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC534695/">Non-REM sleep</a>, where we typically expect fewer dreams, is important for the consolidation of episodic memories (events from your life). As our night’s sleep progresses, we produce more cortisol - the <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2005-01907-021">stress hormone</a>. It is thought the amount of cortisol present can impact the type of memories we are consolidating and potentially the types of dreams we have. This means the dreams we have later in the night may be <a href="https://learnmem.cshlp.org/content/11/6/671.full.pdf">more fragmented or bizarre</a>. Both kinds of sleep help <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jb-Eichenlaub/publication/313545620_Daily_Life_Experiences_in_Dreams_and_Sleep-Dependent_Memory_Consolidation/links/5c532b0ba6fdccd6b5d76270/Daily-Life-Experiences-in-Dreams-and-Sleep-Dependent-Memory-Consolidation.pdf?ref=nepopularna.org">consolidate</a> the useful brain activity of the day. The brain also discards less important information. <h2>Random thoughts, rearranged feelings</h2> This filing and discarding of the day’s activities is going on while we are sleeping. That’s why we often dream about things that happen <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0264574">during the day</a>. Sometimes when we’re rearranging the thoughts and feelings to go in the “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3921176/">bin</a>” during sleep, our level of consciousness allows us to experience awareness. Random thoughts and feelings end up all jumbled together in weird and wonderful ways. Our awareness of this process may explain the bizarre nature of some of our dreams. Our daytime experiences can also fuel nightmares or anxiety-filled dreams after a <a href="https://www.sleepfoundation.org/dreams/how-trauma-can-affect-dreams">traumatic event</a>. Some dreams appear to <a href="https://rai.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1111/j.1467-9655.2010.01668.x">foretell the future or carry potent symbolism</a>. In many societies dreams are believed to be a window into an <a href="https://digitalcommons.ciis.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1050&context=ijts-transpersonalstudies">alternate reality</a> where we can envisage what is possible. <h2>What does it all mean?</h2> Our scientific understanding of the thermoregulatory, molecular and basic neural aspects of dreaming sleep is <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn2716">good</a>. But the psychological and spiritual aspects of dreaming remain largely hidden. Perhaps our brains are wired to try and make sense of things. Human societies have always interpreted the random – birds wheeling, tea leaves and the planets – and looked for <a href="https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047407966/B9789047407966-s003.xml">meaning</a>. Nearly every human society has regarded dreams as more than just random neural firing. And the history of science tells us some things once thought to be magic can later be understood and harnessed – for better or worse.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210901/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/drew-dawson-13517">Drew Dawson</a>, Director, Appleton Institute, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/cquniversity-australia-2140">CQUniversity Australia</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/madeline-sprajcer-1315489">Madeline Sprajcer</a>, Lecturer in Psychology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/cquniversity-australia-2140">CQUniversity Australia</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-dreams-and-nightmares-what-is-going-on-in-our-brains-while-were-sleeping-210901">original article</a>.

Mind

If anxiety is in my brain, why is my heart pounding? A psychiatrist explains the neuroscience and physiology of fear

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/arash-javanbakht-416594">Arash Javanbakht</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/wayne-state-university-989">Wayne State University</a> Heart in your throat. Butterflies in your stomach. Bad gut feeling. These are all phrases many people use to describe fear and anxiety. You have likely felt anxiety inside your chest or stomach, and your brain usually doesn’t hurt when you’re scared. Many cultures tie cowardice and bravery more <a href="https://afosa.org/the-meaning-of-heart-qalb-in-quran/">to the heart</a> <a href="https://byustudies.byu.edu/article/bowels-of-mercy/">or the guts</a> than to the brain. But science has traditionally seen the brain as the birthplace and processing site of fear and anxiety. Then why and how do you feel these emotions in other parts of your body? I am a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=UDytFmIAAAAJ&hl=en">psychiatrist and neuroscientist</a> who researches and treats fear and anxiety. In my book “<a href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781538170380/Afraid-Understanding-the-Purpose-of-Fear-and-Harnessing-the-Power-of-Anxiety">Afraid,</a>” I explain how fear works in the brain and the body and what too much anxiety does to the body. Research confirms that while emotions do originate in your brain, it’s your body that carries out the orders. <h2>Fear and the brain</h2> While your brain evolved to save you from a falling rock or speeding predator, the anxieties of modern life are often a lot more abstract. Fifty-thousand years ago, being rejected by your tribe could mean death, but not doing a great job on a public speech at school or at work doesn’t have the same consequences. Your brain, however, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2002.1179">might not know the difference</a>. There are a few key areas of the brain that are heavily involved in processing fear. When you perceive something as dangerous, whether it’s a gun pointed at you or a group of people looking unhappily at you, these sensory inputs are first relayed to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnpp.2009.121">the amygdala</a>. This small, almond-shaped area of the brain located near your ears detects salience, or the emotional relevance of a situation and how to react to it. When you see something, it determines whether you should eat it, attack it, run away from it or have sex with it. <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-fright-why-we-love-to-be-scared-85885">Threat detection</a> is a vital part of this process, and it has to be fast. Early humans did not have much time to think when a lion was lunging toward them. They had to act quickly. For this reason, the amygdala evolved to bypass brain areas involved in logical thinking and can directly engage physical responses. For example, seeing an angry face on a computer screen can immediately trigger a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2002.1179">detectable response from the amygdala</a> without the viewer even being aware of this reaction. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/xoU9tw6Jgyw?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>In response to a looming threat, mammals often fight, flee or freeze.</figcaption></figure> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2009.83">The hippocampus</a> is near and tightly connected to the amygdala. It’s involved in memorizing what is safe and what is dangerous, especially in relation to the environment – it puts fear in context. For example, seeing an angry lion in the zoo and in the Sahara both trigger a fear response in the amygdala. But the hippocampus steps in and blocks this response when you’re at the zoo because you aren’t in danger. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16030353">prefrontal cortex</a>, located above your eyes, is mostly involved in the cognitive and social aspects of fear processing. For example, you might be scared of a snake until you read a sign that the snake is nonpoisonous or the owner tells you it’s their friendly pet. Although the prefrontal cortex is usually seen as the part of the brain that regulates emotions, it can also teach you fear based on your social environment. For example, you might feel neutral about a meeting with your boss but immediately feel nervous when a colleague tells you about rumors of layoffs. Many <a href="https://theconversation.com/trump-the-politics-of-fear-and-racism-how-our-brains-can-be-manipulated-to-tribalism-139811">prejudices like racism</a> are rooted in learning fear through tribalism. <h2>Fear and the rest of the body</h2> If your brain decides that a fear response is justified in a particular situation, it activates a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190259440.003.0019">cascade of neuronal and hormonal pathways</a> to prepare you for immediate action. Some of the fight-or-flight response – like heightened attention and threat detection – takes place in the brain. But the body is where most of the action happens. Several pathways prepare different body systems for intense physical action. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2014.00043">motor cortex</a> of the brain sends rapid signals to your muscles to prepare them for quick and forceful movements. These include muscles in the chest and stomach that help protect vital organs in those areas. That might contribute to a feeling of tightness in your chest and stomach in stressful conditions. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0IDgBlCHVsA?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe><figcaption>Your sympathetic nervous system is involved in regulating stress.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542195/">sympathetic nervous system</a> is the gas pedal that speeds up the systems involved in fight or flight. Sympathetic neurons are spread throughout the body and are especially dense in places like the heart, lungs and intestines. These neurons trigger the adrenal gland to release hormones like adrenaline that travel through the blood to reach those organs and increase the rate at which they undergo the fear response. To assure sufficient blood supply to your muscles when they’re in high demand, signals from the sympathetic nervous system increase the rate your heart beats and the force with which it contracts. You feel both increased heart rate and contraction force in your chest, which is why you may connect the feeling of intense emotions to your heart. In your lungs, signals from the sympathetic nervous system dilate airways and often increase your breathing rate and depth. Sometimes this results in a feeling of <a href="https://theconversation.com/pain-and-anxiety-are-linked-to-breathing-in-mouse-brains-suggesting-a-potential-target-to-prevent-opioid-overdose-deaths-174187">shortness of breath</a>. As digestion is the last priority during a fight-or-flight situation, sympathetic activation slows down your gut and reduces blood flow to your stomach to save oxygen and nutrients for more vital organs like the heart and the brain. These changes to your gastrointestinal system can be perceived as the discomfort linked to fear and anxiety. <h2>It all goes back to the brain</h2> All bodily sensations, including those visceral feelings from your chest and stomach, are relayed back to the brain through the pathways <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555915/">via the spinal cord</a>. Your already anxious and highly alert brain then processes these signals at both conscious and unconscious levels. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16030353">The insula</a> is a part of the brain specifically involved in conscious awareness of your emotions, pain and bodily sensations. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-019-52776-4">prefrontal cortex</a> also engages in self-awareness, especially by labeling and naming these physical sensations, like feeling tightness or pain in your stomach, and attributing cognitive value to them, like “this is fine and will go away” or “this is terrible and I am dying.” These physical sensations can sometimes create a loop of increasing anxiety as they make the brain feel more scared of the situation because of the turmoil it senses in the body. Although the feelings of fear and anxiety start in your brain, you also feel them in your body because your brain alters your bodily functions. Emotions take place in both your body and your brain, but you become aware of their existence with your brain. As the rapper Eminem recounted in his song “Lose Yourself,” the reason his palms were sweaty, his knees weak and his arms heavy was because his brain was nervous.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210871/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/arash-javanbakht-416594">Arash Javanbakht</a>, Associate Professor of Psychiatry, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/wayne-state-university-989">Wayne State University</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/if-anxiety-is-in-my-brain-why-is-my-heart-pounding-a-psychiatrist-explains-the-neuroscience-and-physiology-of-fear-210871">original article</a>.

Body

These 8 food and drink favourites are bad for your brain

Bad foods for your brain Following a healthy diet is essential to maintaining optimal brain health. Avocados and fatty fish; bone broth, berries and broccoli – they’re all brain-boosting superstars. But there are plenty of foods that have the opposite effect and can sap your smarts, affecting your memory and mood. Therefore, it’s important to cut or reduce the following food from your diet to mitigate their effects. Fried foods Fried chicken and French fries won’t just widen your waistline, they are also bad for your brain. In a study published in 2016 in the Journal of Nutritional Science, people who ate diets high in fried foods scored poorly on cognitive tests that evaluated learning, memory and brain function. Conversely, those who ate more plant-based foods scored higher. “Scientists think it may have something to do with inflammation and reduction in brain tissue size,” says Kristin Kirkpatrick, co-author of Skinny Liver. “When you look at aspects of one of the great brain studies – the MIND diet – it clearly shows which foods may cause or reduce inflammation in the brain. Fried foods are on the NO list, while berries, olive oil, whole grains and food containing omega 3 are on the YES list.” Sugar-sweetened beverages You probably know to stay away from soft drinks. But you should also beware of fruit juice, energy drinks and sweet tea. Why, you ask? The same reason soft drink is among the bad foods for your brain: sugar. “High amounts of sugar causes neurological damage” because it triggers inflammation, says the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics’ Wesley Delbridge. A study published in 2017 in Alzheimer’s & Dementia backs that up. Researchers found that people who regularly consume sugary drinks are more likely to have poorer memory, smaller overall brain volume, and a significantly smaller hippocampus – the part of the brain important for learning and memory – than those who don’t. Instead of drinking fruit juice or sweet tea high in sugar, try sweetening water or tea with slices of oranges, lemons, or limes. Refined carbs White rice, white bread, white pasta and other processed food with a high glycemic index don’t just cause major spikes in blood sugar, they also rank with the ‘bad foods for your brain’. Specifically, these foods can have a negative effect on your mental health. A study, published in 2015 in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition found that food with a high glycemic index can raise the risk of depression in post-menopausal women. Women who ate more lactose, fibre, fruit and vegetables, on the other hand, showed a significant decrease in symptoms of depression. Swap the white carbs for complex carbs like whole wheat bread, brown rice, quinoa, barley, and farro. All of these contain fibre, which nurtures your gut bacteria and regulates inflammation – all good things for your brain health. Excess alcohol There is a sweet spot for alcohol consumption, according to neurologist Dr David Perlmutter and author of Grain Brain: The Surprising Truth about Wheat, Carbs, and Sugar. While the occasional glass of red wine is okay, drinking in excess can be toxic to your brain function, no matter your age. Research, including a study published in 2017 in the peer-reviewed medical trade journal BMJ, found that moderate drinking can damage the brain. The hippocampus is particularly vulnerable. To protect your brain, limit alcohol consumption to no more than one standard drink per day for women and two per day for men. According to Australia’s national alcohol guidelines, one standard drink is defined as containing 10 grams of alcohol. Artificially sweetened beverages Instead of a sugar-sweetened beverage, maybe you turn to the occasional diet soft drink. But make a habit of it and you could be upping your risk of dementia and stroke, suggests a study published in 2017 in Stroke. Researchers found that participants who drank diet drinks daily were almost three times as likely to have a stroke or develop dementia when compared to those who didn’t. “We seek out diet soft drinks for its sweet delivery of liquid,” says Kirkpatrick. “That sweet taste remains on our taste buds, making us crave more.” To kick the habit, she suggests going cold turkey. “Eliminate all sources of sweet from the taste buds to retrain the brain not to want it in the first place,” she says. “Sprucing up water with lemons, limes or berries, or having flavoured seltzer without added sugar can help, as well.” Processed meats If you like to eat processed meats, you may run a greater risk of developing dementia, suggests an April 2020 study published in Neurology. Although the study does not prove cause and effect, the researchers found that dementia was more common among participants who ate highly processed meats, such as sausages, cured meats and pâté. People without dementia were more likely to eat a diverse diet that included fruit, vegetables, seafood and poultry, according to the findings. Highly processed foods are most likely the primary cause of results linked to the reduction in brain tissue size and inflammation, which impacts brain health, says Kirkpatrick. Fast food For starters, the high levels of saturated fat found in greasy burgers and fries can make it harder to fight off Alzheimer-causing plaque. Plus, the level of sodium found in the average fast-food fix can cause brain fog. How so? High blood pressure, often brought on by eating too many salty foods, can restrict blood to the brain and negatively impair focus, organisational skills and memory, suggests a review of studies published in 2016 in Hypertension. To break a fast food habit, Kirkpatrick suggests this trick: “Start with altering what you order,” she says. “Avoid fried options and opt for more whole grains and plants.” Then reduce the number of days you buy fast food by half. Tuna While the occasional tuna sandwich is no big deal, you might want to think twice before making it your go-to lunch. That’s because tuna – as well as swordfish, shark (flake), bill fish and deep sea perch – has higher levels of mercury than many other types of seafood. A study published in Integrative Medicine shows that people with high levels of the heavy metal in their bloodstream had a 5% drop in cognitive function. But you don’t have to banish seafood from your plate forever. Advice from Food Standards Australia New Zealand (which reflects the fish we eat in our region and its mercury content) recommends 2-3 serves per week of fish and seafood, including canned or fresh tuna (one serve equals 150g), except for fish such as orange roughy (deep sea perch), catfish, shark (flake) or billfish (swordfish/marlin), which you should only consume 1 serve per week and no other fish that week. Try swapping these varieties of fish for omega-3-rich sources such as wild salmon and lake trout, which have been associated with better brain health, says Kirkpatrick. Image credits: Getty Images This article originally appeared on <a href="https://www.readersdigest.co.nz/food-home-garden/the-8-worst-foods-for-your-brain" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Reader's Digest</a>.

Food & Wine

Finding a live brain worm is rare. 4 ways to protect yourself from more common parasites

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/vincent-ho-141549">Vincent Ho</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a> <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/aug/28/live-worm-living-womans-brain-australia-depression-forgetfulness">News reports</a> this morning describe how shocked doctors removed a live worm from a woman’s brain in a Canberra hospital last year. The woman had previously been admitted to hospital with stomach symptoms, dry cough and night sweats and months later experienced depression and forgetfulness that led to a brain scan. In the <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/29/9/23-0351_article">case study</a> published in Emerging Infectious Diseases journal, doctors describe removing the live 8cm-long nematode (roundworm) from the brain of the 64-year-old woman who was immunosuppressed. The worm was identified as O. robertsi which is native to Australia, where it lives on carpet pythons. The woman may have come into contact with worm eggs via snake faeces while foraging for Warrigal greens to eat. It’s important to note this is an extremely rare event and headlines about brain worms can be alarming. But there are more common parasites which can infect your body and brain. And there are ways you can minimise your risks of being infected with one. <h2>Common parasites and how they get in</h2> Parasitic infection is extremely common. Arguably the most widespread type is pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis also called threadworm), which is thought to be present in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6522669/">over a billion people</a> worldwide, especially children. Pinworms grow to around 1cm in length and are specific to human hosts. They cause intense bottom itching and get passed from person-to-person. It’s a myth that you can get it from pets. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/giardia/pathogen.html#:%7E:text=Giardia%20duodenalis%20is%20a%20protozoan,Giard%20of%20Paris%20and%20Dr.">Giardia</a> (Giardia duodenalis) is also very common and can contaminate food, water and surfaces. This water-borne parasite is associated with poor sanitation and causes stomach symptoms like diarrhoea, cramps, bloating, nausea and fatigue. Giardia cysts (little sacs of immature parasite) spread disease and are passed out in faeces, where they can remain viable in the environment for months before being consumed by someone else. They can also be ingested via foods (such as sheep meat) that is raw or undercooked. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/hookworm/index.html">Two types</a> of hookworm – Necator americanis and Ancylostoma duadonale – are found in soil. Only Ancylostoma duodenale is an issue in Australia and is typically found in <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/hookworm/index.html">remote communities</a>. When a person is infected (usually via barefeet or contaminated footwear) these worms enter the bloodstream and then hit the lungs. From the bronchi in the upper lungs, they are swallowed with secretions. Once in the gut and small bowel they can <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/soil-transmitted-helminth-infections#:%7E:text=Transmission,these%20eggs%20contaminate%20the%20soil.">cause anaemia</a> (low iron). This is because they are consuming nutrients and affecting iron absorption. They also release an anticoagulant that stops the human host’s blood clotting and causes tiny amounts of blood loss. Fortunately, these very common parasites do not infect the brain. Across the world, it’s estimated <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22491772/">30–50% of people</a> are infected with Toxoplasma. Most people will be asymptomatic but many carry the <a href="https://theconversation.com/one-in-three-people-are-infected-with-toxoplasma-parasite-and-the-clue-could-be-in-our-eyes-182418">signs of infection</a>. The parasites can remain in the body for years as tiny tissue cysts. These cysts can be found in brain, heart and muscle. Infants can be born with serious eye or brain damage if their mothers are infected during pregnancy. People with compromised immunity – such as from AIDS or cancer treatment – are also at risk of illness from infection via pet cats or uncooked meat. <h2>Then there are tapeworms and amoebas</h2> Tapeworms can infect different parts of the body including the brain. This is called <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/resources/pdf/npis_in_us_neurocysticercosis.pdf">neurocysticercosis</a> and is the leading cause of epilepsy worldwide. Neurocysticercosis is uncommon in the Western world and infection is usually via eating pork that is uncooked or prepared by someone who is infected with tapeworm (Taenia solium). It is more likely in locations where pigs have contact with human faeces via sewerage or waterways. <figure class="align-right zoomable"><figcaption></figcaption></figure> Tapeworm larvae can infect muscle and soft tissue. Brain tissue can provide a home for larvae because it is soft and easy to get to via blood vessels. Brain infection can cause headaches, dizziness, seizures, cognitive impairment and even dementia, due to an increase in <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/cysticercosis/gen_info/faqs.html">cerebral spinal fluid pressure</a>. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/naegleria/general.html">Naegleria fowleri</a> is an amoeba found in lakes, rivers and springs in warm climates including <a href="https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/public+health/water+quality/naegleria+fowleri#:%7E:text=How%20common%20are%20Naegleria%20fowleri,frequently%20found%20in%20the%20environment.">in Australia</a>. People swimming in infected waters can have the parasite enter their body through the nose. It then travels to the brain and destroys brain tissue. The condition is <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/naegleria/general.html#:%7E:text=Top%20of%20Page-,What%20is%20the%20death%20rate%20for%20an%20infected%20person%20who,States%20from%201962%20to%202022.">almost always fatal</a>. <h2>Yikes! 4 ways to avoid parasitic infection</h2> That all sounds very scary. And we know being infected by a snake parasite is very rare – finding one alive in someone’s brain is even rarer. But parasites are all around us. To minimise your risk of infection you can: 1. avoid undercooked or raw pork. Freezing meat first may reduce risks (though home freezers <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/trichinellosis/prevent.html">may not get cold enough</a>) and it must be cooked to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924224418301560#:%7E:text=and%20time%20conditions.-,Cooking%20at%20core%20temperature%2060%E2%80%9375%20%C2%B0C%20for%2015,relied%20upon%20in%20home%20situations.">high internal temperature</a>. Avoid pork if you are travelling in places with poor sanitation 2. avoid jumping or diving into warm fresh bodies of water, especially if they are known to carry Naegleria fowleri. Although only a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/naegleria/graphs.html">handful of cases</a> are reported each year, you should assume it’s present 3. practise good <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/handwashing/when-how-handwashing.html#:%7E:text=Follow%20Five%20Steps%20to%20Wash%20Your%20Hands%20the%20Right%20Way&text=Wet%20your%20hands%20with%20clean,for%20at%20least%2020%20seconds.">hand hygiene</a> to reduce the risk of rare and common infections. That means washing hands thoroughly and often, using soap, scrubbing for at least 20 seconds, rinsing and drying well. Clip and clean under fingernails regularly 4. to avoid soil-borne parasites wear shoes outside, especially in rural and remote regions, wash shoes and leave them outside.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212437/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/vincent-ho-141549">Vincent Ho</a>, Associate Professor and clinical academic gastroenterologist, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/western-sydney-university-1092">Western Sydney University</a> Image credits: Canberra Health This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/finding-a-live-brain-worm-is-rare-4-ways-to-protect-yourself-from-more-common-parasites-212437">original article</a>.

Body

9 ways to exercise your brain

While many people can say they are dedicated to keeping their bodies in shape, exercising applies to more than just the muscles, bones and fat in our bodies. We should all be working out the neural pathways and connections in our brains too. So whether you’re trying to get your brain back into shape or you just want to keep it as strong as it is now, below are some top tips on how to help exercise your mind to good health. 1. Read as much as you can Whether it’s a newspaper, magazine or book, reading is a fantastic basic brain exercise. Remember, the more challenging the reading material is the more of a workout you are giving your brain. Like with any new exercise regime, start small and work your way up to a level that you find challenging. 2. Learn new words Increasing your vocabulary is a great way to exercise the language portion of your brain. A word-of-the day calendar is a great way to ensure you keep on top of this throughout the year. 3. Put pen to paper (not fingers to a keyboard) From fictional stories to keeping a journal, writing is a good workout for the brain, as it requires lots of thinking. A study published in the Human Brain Mapping journal found that both planning and writing a story by hand combines handwriting and cognitive writing processes, which are predominantly associated with memory and integrating information from diverse sources. 4. Do puzzles Easy to fit into your daily schedule, simple puzzles like crosswords and Sudoku help to get your brain doing some basic work, while more complex puzzles will give your brain a stronger workout. So although more complicated puzzles may take days to solve and complete, they’re worth the effort as these types of games can help keep you sharp, as well as slow memory loss and mental decline. 5. Switch to your non-dominant hand While this might sound like an odd one, switching to your non-dominant hand from time to time has been shown to stimulate the parts of the brain that control your muscles. Experts also say that using your other hand helps your brain to better integrate its two hemispheres. 6. Get talking For a basic brain workout, get chatting! Next time you catch up with family or friends try talking about more challenging topics (such as politics, religion etc.) where you engage in deep discussion – without arguing. It’s a great way to keep your mind active while having fun, get to know others better and to share your thoughts. 7. Back to school Education has obvious benefits and going back to school is a great way to get your brain working again, to challenge yourself and to do something satisfying. You don’t have to sign up for a whole degree, there are many free short courses as well as certificate courses that you can do online. 8. Eat well Just like with the body, when you exercise you need to give your brain the right fuel so it operates at optimal health. The Open Training Institute says, “Skipping breakfast can reduce thinking skills by 40 per cent, as your brain is starved of that much needed sugar hit”. Furthermore, certain foods are good for improving brain function like dark chocolate, which increases blood flow to the brain increasing alertness and clarity. “Blueberries for example pack a powerful punch of antioxidants and can improve memory, while green leafy veggies and fresh herbs are full of vitamin K, which improves cognitive function.” 9. Exercise Being active doesn’t only keep your body healthy it can also make you more alert. The Open Training Institute says, “Low-intensity exercise like yoga or walking can dramatically reduce sleepiness, amp up energy levels and attention span.” And the benefits of keeping active don’t stop there. “More intensity can even improve cognitive function by five to 10 per cent.” Image credit: Shutterstock

Mind

Hot flushes, night sweats, brain fog? Here’s what we know about phytoestrogens for menopausal symptoms

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/caroline-gurvich-473295">Caroline Gurvich</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/monash-university-1065">Monash University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jane-varney-963066">Jane Varney</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/monash-university-1065">Monash University</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jayashri-kulkarni-185">Jayashri Kulkarni</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/monash-university-1065">Monash University</a> While some women glide through menopause, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26271251/">more than 85%</a> experience one or more unpleasant symptoms, which can impact their physical and mental health, daily activities and quality of life. Hot flushes and night sweats are the most common of these, affecting <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29393299/">75% of women</a> and the symptom for which most women seek treatment. Others include changes in weight and body composition, skin changes, poor sleep, headaches, joint pain, vaginal dryness, depression and brain fog. While menopause hormone therapy is the most effective treatment for menopausal symptoms, it is sometimes not recommended (such as following breast cancer, as there is conflicting evidence about the safety of menopause hormone therapy following breast cancer) or avoided by people, who may seek non-hormonal therapies to manage symptoms. In Australia it is estimated <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26224187/">more than one-third</a> of women seek complementary or alternative medicines to manage menopausal symptoms. But do they work? Or are they a waste of time and considerable amounts of money? <h2>What’s on the market?</h2> The <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30868921/">complementary or alternative interventions</a> for menopausal symptoms are almost as varied as the symptoms themselves. They include everything from mind-body practices (hypnosis, cognitive behavioural therapy and meditation) to alternative medicine approaches (traditional Chinese medicine and acupuncture) and natural products (herbal and dietary supplements). There is some evidence to support the use of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23435026/">hypnosis</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22336748/">cognitive behaviour therapy</a> for the treatment of hot flushes. Indeed these therapies are recommended in <a href="https://www1.racgp.org.au/getattachment/bfaa5918-ddc4-4bcb-93cc-d3d956c1bbfd/Making-choices-at-menopause.aspx">clinical treatment guidelines</a>. But there is less certainty around the benefit of other commonly used complementary and alternative medicines, particularly nutritional supplements. The most popular <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26224187/">nutritional supplements</a> for hot flushes are phytoestrogens (or plant estrogens). This trend has been driven in part by <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-11915645/HRT-not-supplement-created-experts-women-RAVING-effects.html">supplement companies</a> that promote such agents as a safer or more natural alternative to hormone therapy. <h2>What are phytoestrogens?</h2> Phytoestrogens are plant-derived substances that can show oestrogen-like activity when ingested. There are numerous types including isoflavones, coumestans and lignans. These can be consumed in the form of food (from whole soybeans, soy-based foods such as tofu and soy milk, legumes, wholegrains, flaxseeds, fruits and vegetables) and in commercially produced supplements. In the latter category, extracts from soy and red clover yield isoflavones and flaxseed gives us lignans. Because declining oestrogen levels drive menopausal symptoms, the theory is that consuming a “natural”, plant-based substance that acts like oestrogen will provide relief. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528788/original/file-20230529-17-mh3zlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528788/original/file-20230529-17-mh3zlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528788/original/file-20230529-17-mh3zlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528788/original/file-20230529-17-mh3zlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528788/original/file-20230529-17-mh3zlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528788/original/file-20230529-17-mh3zlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528788/original/file-20230529-17-mh3zlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528788/original/file-20230529-17-mh3zlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="Soy-rich foods on a table: edamame, soy milk, soy sauce" /></a><figcaption>Phytoestrogens can be consumed in foods like tofu or soy milk. <a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/soy-bean-tofu-other-products-187030769">Shutterstock</a></figcaption></figure> <h2>What does the evidence say?</h2> In the case of isoflavones, initial support came from <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23562010/">epidemiological data</a> showing <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15919681/">women in Asian countries</a>, consuming a traditional, phytoestrogen-rich diet (that is, one including tofu, miso and fermented or boiled soybeans), experienced fewer menopausal symptoms than women in Western countries. However, several factors may influence the effect of dietary phytoestrogens on menopausal symptoms. This includes gut microbiota, with research showing only around <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15919681/">30% of women</a> from Western populations possess the gut microbiota needed to convert isoflavones to their active form, known as equol, compared to an estimated 50–60% of menopausal women from Japanese populations. Circulating oestrogen levels (which drop considerably during menopause) and the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humupd/article/11/5/495/605995">duration of soy intake</a> (longer-term intake being more favourable) may also influence the effect of dietary phytoestrogens on menopausal symptoms. Overall, evidence regarding the benefit of phytoestrogens for hot flushes is fairly mixed. A <a href="https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001395.pub4/full">Cochrane review</a> synthesised study results and failed to find conclusive evidence phytoestrogens, in food or supplement form, reduced the frequency or severity of hot flushes or night sweats in perimenopausal or postmenopausal women. The review did note genistein extracts (an isoflavone found in soy and fava beans) may reduce the number of hot flushes experienced by symptomatic, postmenopausal women, though to a lesser extent than hormone therapy. Another <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36253903/">recent study</a> showed marked reductions in hot flushes in women following a low fat, vegan diet supplemented with daily soybeans. However, it was questioned whether concurrent weight loss contributed to this benefit. In Australia, <a href="https://ranzcog.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Managing-menopausal-symptoms.pdf">clinical guidelines</a> do not endorse the routine use of phytoestrogens. <a href="https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng23/chapter/Recommendations#managing-short-term-menopausal-symptoms">Guidelines for the United Kingdom</a> note some support for the benefit of isoflavones, but highlight multiple preparations are available, their safety is uncertain and interactions with other medicines have been reported. <h2>Can phytoestrogens help the psychological symptoms of menopause?</h2> Less research has explored whether phytoestrogens improve psychological symptoms of menopause, such as depression, anxiety and <a href="https://theconversation.com/brain-fog-during-menopause-is-real-it-can-disrupt-womens-work-and-spark-dementia-fears-173150">brain fog</a>. A recent systematic review and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33987926/">meta-analysis</a> found phytoestrogens reduce depression in post- but not perimenopausal women. Whereas a more <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9022873/">recent clinical trial</a> failed to find an improvement. Some research suggests phytoestrogens may reduce the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960076015301254?via=ihub">risk of dementia</a>, but there are no conclusive findings regarding their effect on menopausal brain fog. <h2>The bottom line</h2> At present there is uncertainty about the benefit of phytoestrogens for menopause symptoms. If you do wish to see if they might work for you, start by including more phytoestrogen-rich foods in your diet. Examples include tempeh, soybeans, tofu, miso, soy milk (from whole soybeans), oats, barley, quinoa, flaxseeds, sesame seeds, sunflower seeds, almonds, chickpeas, lentils, red kidney beans and alfalfa. Try including one to two serves per day for around three months and monitor symptoms. These are nutritious and good for overall health, irrespective of the effects on menopausal symptoms. Before you trial any supplements, discuss them first with your doctor (especially if you have a history of breast cancer), monitor your symptoms for around three months, and if there’s no improvement, stop taking them.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204801/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/caroline-gurvich-473295">Caroline Gurvich</a>, Associate Professor and Clinical Neuropsychologist, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/monash-university-1065">Monash University</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jane-varney-963066">Jane Varney</a>, Senior Research Dietitian in the Department of Gastroenterology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/monash-university-1065">Monash University</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jayashri-kulkarni-185">Jayashri Kulkarni</a>, Professor of Psychiatry, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/monash-university-1065">Monash University</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/hot-flushes-night-sweats-brain-fog-heres-what-we-know-about-phytoestrogens-for-menopausal-symptoms-204801">original article</a>. Images: Getty

Body

Turning down the volume of pain – how to retrain your brain when you get sensitised

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/joshua-pate-1399299">Joshua Pate</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-technology-sydney-936">University of Technology Sydney</a> For every feeling we experience, there is a lot of complex biology going on underneath our skin. Pain involves our whole body. When faced with possible threats, the feeling of pain develops in a split second and can help us to “detect and protect”. But over time, our nerve cells can become over-sensitised. This means they can react more strongly and easily to something that normally wouldn’t hurt or would hurt less. This is called “<a href="https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2022/sensitization-why-everything-might-hurt/#:%7E:text=When%20neurons%20responsible%20for%20sensing,subset%20of%20chronic%20pain%20patients.">sensitisation</a>”. Sensitisation can affect anyone, but some people may be more prone to it than others due to possible <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jabr.12137">genetic factors, environmental factors or previous experiences</a>. Sensitisation can contribute to chronic pain conditions like fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, migraine or low back pain. But it might be possible to retrain our brains to manage or even reduce pain. <h2>‘Danger!’</h2> Our body senses possible threats via nerve endings called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/nociceptor">nociceptors</a>. We can think of these like a microphones transmitting the word “danger” through wires (nerves and the spinal cord) up to a speaker (the brain). If you sprain your ankle, a range of tiny chemical reactions start there. When sensitisation happens in a sore body part, it’s like more microphones join in over a period of weeks or months. Now the messages can be transmitted up the wire more efficiently. The volume of the danger message gets turned way up. Then, in the spinal cord, chemical reactions and the number of receptors there also adapt to this new demand. The more messages coming up, the more reactions triggered and the louder the messages sent on to the brain. And sensitisation doesn’t always stop there. The brain can also crank the volume up by making use of more wires in the spinal cord that reach the speaker. This is one of the proposed mechanisms of central sensitisation. As time ticks on, a sensitised nervous system will create more and more feelings of pain, seemingly regardless of the amount of bodily damage at the initial site of pain. When we are sensitised, we may experience pain that is out of proportion to the actual damage (<a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/hyperalgesia">hyperalgesia</a>), pain that spreads to other areas of the body (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4327510/">referred pain</a>), pain that lasts a long time (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5573040/">chronic or persistent pain</a>), or pain triggered by harmless things like touch, pressure or temperature (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537129/#:%7E:text=Allodynia%20is%20defined%20as%20%22pain,produce%20sensation%2C%20causing%20pain.">allodynia</a>). Because pain is a biopsychosocial experience (biological and psychological and social), we may also feel other symptoms like fatigue, mood changes, sleep problems or difficulty concentrating. <h2>Neuroplasticity</h2> Around the clock, our bodies and brain are constantly changing and adapting. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557811/">Neuroplasticity</a> is when the brain changes in response to experiences, good or bad. Pain science research suggests we may be able to <a href="https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/retraining-brain-treat-chronic-pain">retrain</a> ourselves to improve wellbeing and take advantage of neuroplasticity. There are some promising approaches that target the mechanisms behind sensitisation and aim to reverse them. One example is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21306870/">graded motor imagery</a>. This technique uses mental and physical exercises like identifying left and right limbs, imagery and <a href="https://www.physio-pedia.com/Mirror_Therapy">mirror box therapy</a>. It has been <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/24740527.2023.2188899">tested</a> for conditions like <a href="https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/complex-regional-pain-syndrome">complex regional pain syndrome</a> (a condition that causes severe pain and swelling in a limb after an injury or surgery) and in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448188/#:%7E:text=Phantom%20limb%20pain%20is%20the,underlying%20pathophysiology%20remains%20poorly%20understood.">phantom limb pain</a> after amputation. Very gradual exposure to increasing stimuli may be behind these positive effects on a sensitised nervous system. While results are promising, more research is needed to confirm its benefits and better understand how it works. The same possible mechanisms of graded exposure underpin some recently developed <a href="https://mhealth.jmir.org/2019/2/e13080/">apps</a> for sufferers. Exercise can also retrain the nervous system. Regular physical activity can <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.01317.2012">decrease the sensitivity</a> of our nervous system by changing processes at a cellular level, seemingly re-calibrating danger message transmission. Importantly, exercise doesn’t have to be high intensity or involve going to the gym. Low-impact activities such as walking, swimming, or yoga can be effective in reducing nervous system sensitivity, possibly by providing new evidence of perceived <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002244">safety</a>. Researchers are exploring whether learning about the science of pain and changing the way we think about it may foster self-management skills, like pacing activities and graded exposure to things that have been painful in the past. Understanding how pain is felt and why we feel it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1756-185X.14293">can help</a> improve function, reduce fear and lower anxiety. <figure><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/eakyDiXX6Uc?wmode=transparent&start=0" width="440" height="260" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></figure> <h2>But don’t go it alone</h2> If you have chronic or severe pain that interferes with your daily life, you should consult a health professional like a doctor and/or a pain specialist who can diagnose your condition and prescribe appropriate active treatments. In Australia, a range of <a href="https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/212772/ACI-chronic-pain-services.pdf">multidisciplinary pain clinics</a> offer physical therapies like exercise, psychological therapies like mindfulness and cognitive behavioural therapy. Experts can also help you make lifestyle changes to improve <a href="https://painhealth.csse.uwa.edu.au/pain-module/sleep-and-pain/">sleep</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8584994/">diet</a> to manage and reduce pain. A multi-pronged approach makes the most sense given the complexity of the underlying biology. Education could help develop <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0738399121006467">pain literacy and healthy habits</a> to prevent sensitisation, even from a young age. Resources, such as children’s books, videos, and board games, are being developed and tested to improve <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2022.07.008">consumer and community understanding</a>. Pain is not a feeling anyone should have to suffer in silence or endure alone. <img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202850/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/joshua-pate-1399299">Joshua Pate</a>, Senior Lecturer in Physiotherapy, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-technology-sydney-936">University of Technology Sydney</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/turning-down-the-volume-of-pain-how-to-retrain-your-brain-when-you-get-sensitised-202850">original article</a>.

Caring

5 daily habits to improve heart, brain and eye health

Blackmores Naturopath Rebekah Russell shares her top five tips for boosting heart, brain and eye health. 1. Stand up for your health Sitting is the new smoking. Sitting for hours on end, like most office workers do, increases the risk of heart attack and stroke – even if you are a regular exerciser. Unfortunately, a morning run or afternoon swim can’t negate the damage of sitting for eight hours or more a day. Try setting a diary reminder on your computer to stand up and walk around or try to stand during phone calls. 2. De-stress Despite modern technologies that are designed to make life easier, we’re all more stressed than ever. Long-term stress can spike levels of cortisol – a stress hormone which can affect the short-term memory regions of the brain. Meditation, spending time with friends and family, switching off from the Internet and social media, are all ways you can minimise stress and maintain long-term brain health. 3. Be a floss boss Not only can regular flossing prevent bad breath, it may prevent heart attack. While there is currently no definitive proof periodontal disease actually causes heart disease, there is proof that bacteria in the mouth can be released into the bloodstream and cause a hardening of the arteries. This can then lead to heart attack and stroke – reason enough to include flossing in your daily routine! 4. Good food Good eye, brain and heart health all starts with the food on your fork. Try to include two serves of fruit and five serves of vegetables in your diet each day. Lutein (often referred to as the “eye vitamin”) and zeaxanthin, nutrients commonly found in vegetables, are disease-fighting antioxidants that are important for eyes, brain, and heart. Both nutrients are commonly found in green leafy vegetables such as spinach, kale, turnips and lettuce as well as broccoli, zucchini and brussels sprouts and eggs. Omega-3 fatty acids, found in fish and fish oil, may also help fight off macular degeneration and cataracts, while also maintaining good heart and brain health. 5. Get social If you need another excuse to catch up with friends, or hang out with family, it’s this one! Socialising stimulates the brain and can also help to encourage healthy behaviours such as exercising. Daily social interaction has also been suggested to protect the brain against diseases including dementia and Alzheimer’s. Images: Getty

Body

Hit your head while playing sport? Here’s what just happened to your brain

It’s Friday night, your team is playing, and scores are nail-bitingly close. A player intercepts the ball, and bam! A player tackles his opponent to the ground. Trainers and doctors gather nervously while the commentators wait for confirmation: a concussion, mild traumatic brain injury, head knock, strike, tap, bump, blow … there are many terms for it. How to prevent and treat such injuries is the subject to a <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/Headtraumainsport">Senate inquiry</a>, with public hearings this week. But what exactly are these injuries? What’s going on in the brain? <h2>What is concussion?</h2> Concussion is a form of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Concussion typically falls at the milder end of the spectrum, and so is often called mild TBI. Concussions happen most often when the head directly hits against something. But it can also happen without head impact, when a blow to the body causes the head to move quickly. The brain is a soft organ in a hard case, floating in a thin layer of <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/cerebrospinal-fluid-csf-analysis/">cerebrospinal fluid</a>. The brain can be damaged away from the site of impact for this reason, as it bounces with force within the skull. Concussions that happen during sport can be complex because the head often rotates as the person falls. This “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3979340/">rotational acceleration</a>” can cause more damage to the brain. This is especially the case for cells in the long tracts of white matter responsible for relaying signals around the brain. As well as causing initial damage to brain cells at the time of injury, concussion sets off a cascade of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4479139/">chemical and biological changes</a>. These occur within minutes and may last for days or even weeks after concussion. Cell membranes become permeable (more leaky), causing an imbalance of brain chemicals inside and outside cells. Cellular functions shift into overdrive to try to restore balance, using more fuel in the form of glucose. At the same time, blood flow to the brain is often reduced, resulting in a mismatch between energy supply and demand. The structural scaffolding of cells in the white matter may begin to weaken or break, preventing or reducing the ability of cells to communicate. Sensing danger, cells from the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28910616/">immune system</a> begin to migrate to the brain in an attempt to stem the damage, spouting chemical signals to recruit other inflammatory cells to the sites of injury. These initial responses to concussion typically resolve over time, but the recovery period may be different for each person, and may persist even after symptoms go away. <h2>What are the symptoms?</h2> Concussion <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/concussion/symptoms-causes/syc-20355594">symptoms</a> can differ depending on the person and the circumstances of injury. Some people have more obvious symptoms like loss of consciousness, vomiting and confusion; others may have headaches, problems with their vision, or thinking and concentration. Some people may have one symptom while others have many. Some people’s symptoms may be severe, and others may have only mild symptoms. So diagnosing and managing concussion can be difficult. Most people who have a concussion will find their symptoms subside within days or weeks. But around <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26918481/">20% of people</a> will have persistent symptoms beyond three months after their concussion. Ongoing symptoms can make it harder to perform at work or school, to socialise with friends and to maintain relationships. Scientists don’t know why recoveries are different for different people. We have no way to <a href="https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/11/5/e046460.info">predict</a> who will recover from concussion and who won’t. <h2>How about repeat blows to the head?</h2> People who play contact sports are more likely to have multiple concussions over a playing career. Higher numbers of concussions tend to mean <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28387556/">worse symptoms and slower recovery</a> for subsequent concussions. This indicates the brain doesn’t get used to concussions, and each concussion is likely to impart additional damage. Emerging evidence suggests repeated concussions may lead to <a href="https://n.neurology.org/content/88/15/1400.short">ongoing changes</a> in people’s brain cell structure and function. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32326805/">Inflammation</a> may persist inside and outside the brain. Inflammation may also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30535946/">cause or contribute</a> to someone developing symptoms, and long-term brain functional and structural changes. Prolonged symptoms and long-term brain changes may be worse in the long run for people who experience their concussions as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6595074/">young adults</a> compared to people who have concussions as older adults. Scientists are also starting to find differences in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30618335/">symptoms</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8596946/">brain alterations</a> in males and females. These could be related to newfound sex differences in the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29104114/">scaffolding proteins</a> of male and female brains, making female brains more susceptible. <h2>We’ve known about this for a long time</h2> The long-term brain and behaviour changes resulting from repeated sports concussions have been reported since at least the <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/1/3306/816">1920s</a>. Back then, it was seen in boxers and termed dementia pugilistica, or <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/260461">punch-drunk syndrome</a>. We now call this condition <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1934148211005296">chronic traumatic encephalopathy</a> (CTE). People found to have CTE don’t always experience severe symptoms. Instead, symptoms tend to emerge or worsen later in life, even decades after injury or at the end of a playing career. People also have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8166432/">varied symptoms</a> that can sometimes be hard to measure, like confusion, impaired judgement and aggression. This has made diagnosis difficult while people are alive. We can only confirm CTE after someone dies, by detecting altered structural proteins of the brain in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12024-023-00624-3">specific brain areas</a>. There is still a lot to learn about CTE, including the exact processes that cause it, and why some people will develop it and others won’t. <h2>Concussion is common</h2> Concussion is a common injury almost <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7048626/">30%</a> of us will experience in our lifetime. Although we have a lot still to learn, the current advice for people who experience concussion is to seek medical advice to help with initial management of symptoms and guide decisions on returning back to playing sports. This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/hit-your-head-while-playing-sport-heres-what-just-happened-to-your-brain-203038" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>. Images: Getty

Body

How the brain stops us learning from our mistakes – and what to do about it

You learn from your mistakes. At least, most of us have been told so. But science shows that we often fail to learn from past errors. Instead, we are likely to keep repeating the same mistakes. What do I mean by mistakes here? I think we would all agree that we quickly learn that if we put our hand on a hot stove, for instance, we get burned, and so are unlikely to repeat this mistake again. That’s because our brains create a threat-response to the physically painful stimuli based on past experiences. But when it comes to thinking, behavioural patterns and decision making, we often repeat mistakes – such as being late for appointments, leaving tasks until the last moment or judging people based on first impressions. The reason can be found in the way our brain processes information and creates templates that we refer to again and again. These templates are essentially shortcuts, which help us make decisions in the real world. But these shortcuts, known as heuristics, can also make us repeat our errors. As I discuss in my book <a href="https://www.drpragyaagarwal.co.uk/sway-press">Sway: Unravelling Unconscious Bias</a>, humans are not naturally rational, even though we would like to believe that we are. Information overload is exhausting and confusing, so we filter out the noise. We only see parts of the world. We tend to notice things that are repeating, whether there are any patterns or not, and we tend to preserve memory by generalising and resorting to type. We also draw conclusions from sparse data and use cognitive shortcuts to create a version of reality that we implicitly want to believe in. This creates a reduced stream of incoming information, which helps us connect dots and fill in gaps with stuff we already know. Ultimately, our brains are lazy and it takes a lot of cognitive effort to change the script and these shortcuts that we have already built up. And so we are more likely to fall back on the same patterns of behaviours and actions, even when we are conscious of repeating our mistakes. This is called confirmation bias – our tendency to confirm what we already believe in, rather than shift our mindset to incorporate new information and ideas. We also often deploy “<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-rational-to-trust-your-gut-feelings-a-neuroscientist-explains-95086">gut instinct</a>” - an automatic, subconscious type of thinking that draws on our accumulation of past experiences while making judgements and decisions in new situations. Sometimes we stick with certain behaviour patterns, and repeat our mistakes because of an “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014292121002786">ego effect</a>” that compels us to stick with our existing beliefs. We are likely to selectively choose the information structures and feedback that help us protect our egos. One experiment found that when people were reminded of their successes of the past, they were more likely to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1057740815000728">repeat those successful behaviours</a>. But when they were conscious of or actively made aware of their failures from the past, they were less likely to overturn the pattern of behaviour that led to failure. So people were in fact still likely to repeat that behaviour. That’s because, when we think of our past failures, we are likely to feel down. And in those moments, we are more likely to indulge in behaviour that makes us feel comfortable and familiar. Even when we think carefully and slowly, our brains have a bias towards the information and templates we had used in the past, regardless of whether these resulted in errors. This is called the <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/mind-my-money/200807/familiarity-bias-part-i-what-is-it">familiarity bias</a>. We can learn from mistakes though. In one experiment, monkeys and humans had to watch noisy, moving dots on a screen and judge their net direction of movement. The researchers found that both slowed down after an error. The larger the error, the longer the post-error slowing, showing more information was being accumulated. However, the quality of this information <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/809286">was low</a>. Our cognitive shortcuts can force us to override any new information that could help prevent repeating mistakes. In fact, if we make mistakes while performing a certain task, “frequency bias” makes us likely to repeat them whenever we do the task again. Simplistically speaking, our brains start assuming that the errors we’ve previously made are the correct way to perform a task – creating a habitual <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/pbr.15.1.156">“mistake pathway”</a>. So the more we repeat the same tasks, the more likely we are to traverse the mistake pathway, until it becomes so deeply embedded that it becomes a set of permanent cognitive shortcuts in our brains. Cognitive control It sounds bleak, so what can be done? We do have a mental ability that can override heuristic shortcuts, known as “cognitive control”. And there are some <a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(21)00075-1">recent studies in neuroscience with mice</a> that are giving us a better idea of what parts of our brains are involved in that. Researchers have also <a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(18)31007-9">identified two brain regions</a> with “self-error monitoring neurons” – brain cells which monitor errors. These areas are in the frontal cortex and appear to be part of a sequence of processing steps – from refocusing to learning from our mistakes. Researchers are exploring whether a better understanding of this could help with development of better treatments and support for Alzheimer’s, for example, as preserved cognitive control is crucial for <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2020.00198/full">wellbeing in later life</a>. But even if we don’t have a perfect understanding of the brain processes involved in cognitive control and self-correction, there are simpler things we can do. One is to become more comfortable with making mistakes. We might think that this is the wrong attitude towards failures, but it is in fact a more positive way forward. Our society denigrates failures and mistakes, and consequently we are likely to feel shame for our mistakes, and try and hide them. The more guilty and ashamed we feel, and the more we try and hide our mistakes from others, the more likely we are to repeat them. When we not feeling so down about ourselves, we are more likely to be better at taking on new information that can help us correct our mistakes. It can also be a good idea to take a break from performing a task that we want to learn how to do better. Acknowledging our failures and pausing to consider them can help us reduce frequency bias, which will make us less likely to repeat our mistakes and reinforce the mistake pathways. Image credit: Shutterstock This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-brain-stops-us-learning-from-our-mistakes-and-what-to-do-about-it-203436" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>.

Mind

How habit stacking trains your brain to make good habits last

Forming new habits Forming new habits – even those you’re excited about – can be just as tricky as breaking habits. Adding more things to our daily to-do list can feel overwhelming, but with a little time-management ingenuity, making good habits stick can help us learn how to be happy, how to set goals and even how to be productive. Clueless about how to start with that? A behavioural trick called habit stacking can give you a major assist. The concept of habit stacking is akin to constructing a solid house: build a new habit on top of a strong, existing part of your daily routine. That way, it’s piggybacking on an old habit that’s already a no-brainer, so you’re far more likely to adopt the new habit going forward. “Habits are automated behaviours you don’t have to think about,” says clinical psychologist, Dr Pauline Wallin. “For example, there are several steps involved in tying your shoelaces, but you don’t consciously think about these during the process. Once your fingers grab the laces, it’s an automated process.” Why not make all your to-dos as effortless as tying your shoes? There’s really no downside to habit stacking. It turns chores into habits you don’t have to think about all that much. So here’s how you can make that happen. What is habit stacking? The term habit stacking was first used by author S.J. Scott in his book Habit Stacking, and it’s taken off like a rocket. “Habit stacking involves adding small routines to habits that are already established,” says Wallin. “With intentional practise, the established habit becomes a trigger for the new habit you want to adopt.” That new behaviour will eventually become a trigger for the next habit, allowing you to build on the progress you’ve already made. How does habit stacking work? At its core, habit stacking is simply pairing a small, new habit (say meditating for a few minutes) with one that’s already established (boiling water for your morning cup of tea). The more we practise doing it, the more automatic it becomes. It may take a little bit of adjusting to get used to it at first, but be intentional about how you go about stacking habits. “Adding a new behaviour to an established habit is not automatic at first but gradually becomes automatic as it is repeatedly paired with the longer-established habit, such that the earlier habit becomes a cue for the newer habit,” says Wallin. Eventually, you may not feel like you even need habit trackers anymore – you’ll be getting things done without even thinking about them. Here’s more about how habit stacking works to help you quickly adopt new behaviours. It uses existing neural networks to make new habits stick Everything we do and think draws on neural networks, which are how our brains organise information to communicate our thoughts and behaviours. Habits have many deep and redundant neural paths, so we can perform a habit even while our attention is elsewhere. “Your brain builds new neurons to support the behaviours we practise daily,” says clinical psychologist Bonnie Carpenter. “The more you practise a habit, the stronger the connections can become. If you don’t practise a habit, the connections will not be as strong.” So when you tap into the power of the habits you already have, the newer habits already have a framework to follow. It turns an existing habit into a cue for the next one We all have many behaviours that we’ve practised for years, just like tying our shoelaces. “If you attach a new behaviour to the old ones, it’s much more likely that you will make the new behaviour part of your routine,” says Carpenter. “You are teaching yourself and planning the path to behaviours in the future.” Eventually, you’ll take for granted those habits you couldn’t make stick. It'll help you procrastinate less You know you need to adopt a good-for-you habit, but you just don’t know how or where to start. And let’s be honest: you really can’t find the motivation for it. (Join the club.) That’s exactly when habit stacking works well. When you tie the dreaded thing you keep putting off to a strong, automatic habit, it’s suddenly possible to get ‘er done. “After a while, it becomes natural,” says Carpenter. Wasting time putting off what you don’t want to do will quickly be a thing of your past. What is an example of habit stacking? Different people have different habits they want to adopt, but these examples can get the wheels turning in your head about the ways habit stacking can help you streamline your life and become more productive. For each, we’ve included your established habit, then the new habit you can stack on top of it. When you turn off your work computer for the day or when you take a break from work, tidy up your desk for five minutes. After you grab something to wear out of your overstuffed closet, put another clothing item into a bag to be donated to charity. When you finish dinner, immediately put your plates and silverware in the dishwasher so the kitchen sink is always empty. Once you’re done brushing your teeth, hydrate with a full glass of water. While your morning coffee is brewing, sweep the floor, open the mail or wash the dishes in your sink. When your car pulls out of work at the end of the day, phone your mother (you know she wishes you’d call more often!). What are habit-stacking strategies? How exactly you want to tackle this is entirely up to you, and that’s one of the best parts of the habit-stacking concept: it can and should be customised. Our experts suggest these ideas to get you started. 1. Find the right habits to pair It probably makes the most sense to connect the old habit with the new one that’s in a similar vein, but that isn’t entirely necessary. For example, if you want to fit in more exercise, start a new habit of walking for five minutes every time you put on a pair of sneakers. But according to clinical psychologist, Dr Linda Sapadin, what matters most is that the new habit is specific, not that the habits are cousins. Maybe putting on your sneakers isn’t tied to exercise; instead, it might make more sense for you to take out the garbage whenever you lace up your tennis shoes. If the pairing makes sense to you, that’s all that matters. In other words, you do you. Timing matters too: “It’s also very helpful to decide when you are most likely to have a positive experience with habit stacking,” Sapadin says. If your aim is to practise gratitude by filling out a gratitude journal daily, it doesn’t make sense to tie this new habit to your morning shower. You won’t be writing under the spray of water, after all. Instead, you might stack the gratitude journalling habit on top of putting on your pyjamas. “Look at the habits you have daily, and look for the place where you might easily insert the new behaviour,” says Carpenter. 2. Don't use an emotionally laden habit as a cue Certain ingrained routines are not the right triggers for new habits. If you wake up in the morning, hop on the scale and feel bad about yourself, for example, your am weigh-in is absolutely not the right cue for another habit. “If you pair a new habit with one that is emotionally triggering, you will unwittingly train the new habit to trigger similar emotions,” says Wallin. 3. Stack the habits for good Most of us have already engaged in habit stacking for our bad habits, such as procrastinating on work. Let’s say you sit down at your desk to work, but you are reluctant to get started (usually due to some degree of anxiety). “To distract yourself from anxiety, you form a habit of scrolling through your social media feed for a few minutes,” says Wallin. Now you’re not working, and you’re not doing anything else terribly productive either. This pattern can continue to suck your time, which is the opposite effect of what habit stacking should be. “Next, suppose that, while scrolling through your social media, you see an ad for an item that you’ve been shopping for recently,” says Wallin. “What luck! You click to purchase it immediately. For the next few days, when you sit down to work, you check your social media and then look for other bargain offers. Now you are stacking another habit onto the sequence.” As you can guess, this type of habit stacking is easy, says Wallin. “But the sequence is counter-productive because it interferes with getting work done,” she says. If, instead, you want to mirror the morning habits of highly organised people, stack a productive task on top of another one. In time, you will become the naturally productive person you’ve always wanted to be. Image credits: Getty Images This article originally appeared on <a href="https://www.readersdigest.co.nz/culture/how-habit-stacking-trains-your-brain-to-make-good-habits-last?pages=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Reader's Digest</a>.

Body

We make thousands of unconscious decisions every day. Here’s how your brain copes with that

Do you remember learning to drive a car? You probably fumbled around for the controls, checked every mirror multiple times, made sure your foot was on the brake pedal, then ever-so-slowly rolled your car forward. Fast forward to now and you’re probably driving places and thinking, “how did I even get here? I don’t remember the drive”. The task of driving, which used to take a lot of mental energy and concentration, has now become subconscious, automatic – habitual. But how – and why – do you go from concentrating on a task to making it automatic? Habits are there to help us cope We live in a vibrant, complex and transient world where we constantly face a barrage of information competing for our attention. For example, our eyes take in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1564115/">over one megabyte of data every second</a>. That’s equivalent to reading 500 pages of information or an entire encyclopedia every minute. Just one whiff of a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12744840/">familiar smell</a> can trigger a memory from childhood in less than a millisecond, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.08.004">our skin</a> contains up to 4 million receptors that provide us with important information about temperature, pressure, texture, and pain. And if that wasn’t enough data to process, <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/REPS-10-2018-011/full/html">we make thousands of decisions</a> every single day. Many of them are unconscious and/or minor, such as putting seasoning on your food, picking a pair of shoes to wear, choosing which street to walk down, and so on. Some people are neurodiverse, and the ways we sense and process the world differ. But generally speaking, because we simply cannot process <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364661305001178">all the incoming data</a>, our brains create habits – automations of the behaviours and actions we often repeat. Two brain systems There are two forces that govern our behaviour: intention and habit. In simple terms, our brain has <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17437199.2016.1244647">dual processing systems</a>, sort of like a computer with two processors. Performing a behaviour for the first time requires intention, attention and planning – even if plans are made only moments before the action is performed. This happens in our prefrontal cortex. More than any other part of the brain, the prefrontal cortex is responsible for making deliberate and logical decisions. It’s the key to reasoning, problem-solving, comprehension, impulse control and perseverance. It affects behaviour via <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/handbook-of-behavior-change/changing-behavior-using-the-reflectiveimpulsive-model/A35DBA6BF0E784F491E936F2BE910FF7">goal-driven decisions</a>. For example, you use your “reflective” system (intention) to make yourself go to bed on time because sleep is important, or to move your body because you’ll feel great afterwards. When you are learning a new skill or acquiring new knowledge, you will draw heavily on the reflective brain system to form new memory connections in the brain. This system requires mental energy and effort. From impulse to habit On the other hand, your “impulsive” (habit) system is in your brain’s <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.112851">basal ganglia</a>, which plays a key role in the development of emotions, memories, and pattern recognition. It’s impetuous, spontaneous, and pleasure seeking. For example, your impulsive system might influence you to pick up greasy takeaway on the way home from a hard day at work, even though there’s a home-cooked meal waiting for you. Or it might prompt you to spontaneously buy a new, expensive television. This system requires no energy or cognitive effort as it operates reflexively, subconsciously and automatically. When we repeat a behaviour in a consistent context, our brain recognises the patterns and moves the control of that behaviour from intention to habit. A habit occurs when your impulse towards doing something is automatically initiated because you encounter a setting in which you’ve done the same thing <a href="https://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40359-015-0065-4">in the past</a>. For example, getting your favourite takeaway because you walk past the food joint on the way home from work every night – and it’s delicious every time, giving you a pleasurable reward. Shortcuts of the mind Because habits sit in the impulsive part of our brain, they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.03.978">don’t require much cognitive input or mental energy</a> to be performed. In other words, habits are the mind’s shortcuts, allowing us to successfully engage in our daily life while reserving our reasoning and executive functioning capacities for other thoughts and actions. Your brain remembers how to drive a car because it’s something you’ve done many times before. Forming habits is, therefore, a natural process that contributes to <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-2909.124.1.54">energy preservation</a>. That way, your brain doesn’t have to consciously think about your every move and is free to consider other things – like what to make for dinner, or where to go on your next holiday. Image credit: Shutterstock This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-make-thousands-of-unconscious-decisions-every-day-heres-how-your-brain-copes-with-that-201379" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>.

Mind

Why study is the key to keeping your brain healthy as you age

Two Over60 community members talk about studying later in life, how it keeps their mind healthy and why they keep going back for more. The word study for many people conjures up memories of restless school days, strict teachers and homework you had to force yourself to complete. However, education isn’t just limited to schools – if you think about our everyday lives, we are constantly learning new things. Whether it’s trying out a new recipe, learning about historic events through a film or attempting to remember algebra so we can help our grandkids, it’s clear learning is a lifelong process. Research consistently shows that keeping your mind active has many health benefits. For over-60s, it helps to keep your mind stimulated and mental faculties in top condition as well as improving your overall wellbeing. It is why there are increasingly more seniors who are seeking to study later in life – and they’re finding they not only love it, but that it’s rewarding in so many ways. For Bernard Macdougall, 73, from Maryborough, Queensland, taking courses and learning new things has been crucial in keeping his mind astute. It was after searching online that Bernard stumbled across the free Open2Study courses. “A couple of year ago I was starting to get a bit anxious about whether I had any brain damage. I had a bit of numbness on the right side of my body and I felt I had a slight impediment in my speech,” he reveals, continuing, “but when I found I could get high marks in these courses I thought well I don’t have to worry, my brain is working, there hasn’t been any deterioration.” Bernard found there was a great variety in courses offered and the option of short one-month timeframes could be easily managed. He ended up taking three courses through Open2Study and another online course through Charles Darwin University. It was a similar case for Peter Keyes, 78, from Albion Park Rail, New South Wales, who has completed four courses through Open2Study. Peter has worked in education all his life so when retirement came around he wasn’t about to stop learning. “You can’t sit around in retirement and twiddle your thumbs,” he laughs, adding, “I live in a retirement village and I encourage all of [the residents] to do some study rather than sit around and watch TV all day! It keeps the brain kicking.” As well as keeping him busy, Peter also found the courses were helpful and informative. “During my career in education I ended up being an administrator looking after buildings so I was interested in one of the courses ‘Project Management’. It gave me a further insight into the processes that I used in setting up the buildings of school buildings,” he explains, continuing, “In [my] retirement village, management occasionally ask me to go into planning meetings and talk about what things [to consider] in terms of buildings and older people.” Studying is not only about learning new things but as Bernard found, it can be personally fulfilling too. “Back in the 70s, I did an arts degree with major studies in anthropology. I saw that Open2Study had a course called ‘<a href="https://www.open2study.com/courses/becoming-human-anthropology-090913%20" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Becoming Human</a>’. I thought, ‘Right I will have a go at that’,” explains Bernard. He soon found he was not only learning about new theories but about what it means to become human. “I was very emotionally involved as it was about human evolution,” he says. Both Bernard and Peter found the online courses easy to manage – all that was needed was a computer and an internet connection to access the course that you could do in the convenience and comfort of your own home. Lectures were presented through short videos, which Peter found convenient: “You can stop it at any time, make a note and then catch up,” he explains. And for those who are worried that studying means taking exams or doing assessments again, Peter advises you not to worry. “When people hear that they’ve got exams or test or assessment to do, they get a bit frightened. But you teach them there’s nothing to it, you can always stop and go back and have another read,” says Peter. While there are assessments – mainly multiple choice – throughout most courses, it’s not about being competitive but having a barometer for your individual progress. It is simply there so you know how much knowledge you have learnt during the course. Bernard found that although he felt apprehensive sometimes, there was a greatly fulfilling feeling of not only accomplishing the assessment but gaining some high marks. “I put a lot of work into study and when you have to press the final submit button, sometimes I was extremely apprehensive because I was anxious to get good marks,” Bernard explains, adding, “I think one has to devote time to it but it’s time I’m happy to spend.” Both Peter and Bernard are quick to reveal that they are not going to stop studying anytime soon. Peter has just signed up to Open2Study’s ‘Innovation for Powerful Outcomes’ course while Bernard is still half way through the ‘User Experience for the Web’ course. “The course is self-paced so I can start again and there’s no deadline for me, thank goodness,” Bernard smiles. After each completing a number of courses, they can’t speak highly enough about how beneficial studying has been for them. “It keeps the little grey cells going,” states Peter, because as he know only too well, “the pool of knowledge, skill, understanding and wisdom is enormous” in the over-60 community. “For me it is very, very important to keep learning as you age. Partly so that I know my brain is still good and not fading away,” Bernard chuckles, continuing, “it is also just a matter of curiosity. I’m just interested in learning new topics.” Images: Getty

Mind

Anxious dogs have different brains to normal dogs, brain scan study reveals

Dog ownership is a lot of furry companionship, tail wags and chasing balls, and ample unconditional love. However, some dog owners are also managing canine pals struggling with mental illness. A newly published study <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0282087">in PLOS ONE</a> has examined the brain scans of anxious and non-anxious dogs, and correlated them with behaviour. The research team at Ghent University, Belgium, found that our anxious dog friends not only have measurable differences in their brains linked to their anxiety, but these differences are similar to those found in humans with anxiety disorders as well. <h2>Anxious friends</h2> Anxiety disorders in humans are varied and can be categorised into several main types. Overall, they represent high levels of fear, emotional sensitivity and negative expectations. These disorders can be difficult to live with and sometimes difficult to treat, in part due to how varied and complex anxiety is. Researching anxiety in animals can help us to understand what drives it, and to improve treatment for both humans and animals. The new study sought to investigate possible pathways in the brain that are associated with anxiety in dogs. Understanding this could both improve treatment for anxiety in veterinary medicine, and reveal similarities with what we know of human anxiety. Dogs with and without anxiety were recruited for functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans of their brains. Dogs have been involved in awake fMRI studies before, but for this one, with dogs that might get easily stressed out, the dogs were under general anaesthesia. Owners of the dogs also filled out surveys on their pets’ behaviour. The researchers performed data analysis and modelling of brain function, focusing on regions of the brain likely to show differences related to anxiety. Based on previous research on animal and human anxiety, the team dubbed these brain regions the “anxiety circuit”. They then analysed whether there were differences between the brain function of anxious and non-anxious dogs, and if those differences actually related to anxious behaviours. <h2>Different brains</h2> The researchers found there were indeed significant differences between anxious and non-anxious dogs. The main differences were in the communication pathways and connection strength within the “anxiety circuit”. These differences were linked with higher scores for particular behaviours in the surveys as well. For example, anxious dogs had amygdalas (an area of the brain associated with the processing of fear) that were particularly efficient, suggesting a lot of experience with fear. (This is similar to findings from human studies.) Indeed, in the behaviour surveys, owners of anxious dogs noted increased fear of unfamiliar people and dogs. The researchers also found less efficient connections in anxious dogs between two regions of the brain important for learning and information processing. This may help explain why the owners of the anxious dogs in the study reported lower trainability for their dog. <h2>A difficult time</h2> Brains are exquisitely complex biological computers, and our understanding of them is far from comprehensive. As such, this study should be interpreted cautiously. The sample size was not large or varied enough to represent the entire dog population, and the way the dogs were raised, housed, and cared for could have had an effect. Furthermore, they were not awake during the scans, and that also may have influenced some of the results. However, the study does show strong evidence for measurable differences in the way anxious dog brains are wired, compared to non-anxious dogs. This research can’t tell us whether changes in the brain caused the anxiety or the other way around, but anxiety in dogs is certainly real. It’s in the interests of our anxious best friends that we appreciate they may be affected by a brain that processes everything around them differently to “normal” dogs. This may make it difficult for them to learn to change their behaviour, and they may be excessively fearful or easily aroused. Thankfully, these symptoms can be treated with medication. Research like this could lead to more finessed use of medication in anxious dogs, so they can live happier and better adjusted lives. If you have a dog you think might be anxious, you should speak to a veterinarian with special training in behaviour. Image credit: Shutterstock This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/anxious-dogs-have-different-brains-to-normal-dogs-brain-scan-study-reveals-201775" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>.

Family & Pets

Here’s what happens in your brain when you’re trying to make or break a habit

Did you set a New Year’s resolution to kick a bad habit, only to find yourself falling back into old patterns? You’re not alone. In fact, research suggests up to <a href="https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1281">40% of our daily actions are habits</a> – automatic routines we do without thinking. But how do these habits form, and why are they so difficult to break? Habits can be likened to riverbeds. A well-established river has a deep bed and water is likely to consistently flow in that direction. A new river has a shallow bed, so the flow of water is not well defined – it can vary course and be less predictable. Just like water down a riverbed, habits help our behaviour “flow” down a predictable route. But what we are really talking about here is learning and unlearning. <h2>What happens in the brain when we form a habit?</h2> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033417">During the early stages of habit formation</a>, the decision parts of your brain (pre-frontal cortices) are activated, and the action is very deliberate (instead of hitting snooze you make the choice to get out of bed). When a new routine is initiated, brain circuits – also called neural networks – are activated. The more often you repeat the new action, the stronger and more efficient these neural networks become. This reorganising and strengthening of connections between neurons is called neuroplasticity, and in the case of building habits – <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation">long-term potentiation</a>. Each time you perform the new action while trying to form a habit, you need smaller cues or triggers to activate the same network of brain cells. <a href="https://oce.ovid.com/article/00006832-200710000-00001/HTML">Habits strengthen over time</a> as we form associations and earn rewards – for example, not hitting snooze makes getting to work on time easier, so you feel the benefits of your new habit. Later, as habits strengthen, the decision parts of the brain no longer need to kick in to initiate the action. The habit is now activated in memory and considered automatic: the neural circuits can perform the habit without conscious thought. In other words, you don’t need to choose to perform the action any more. <h2>How long does it really take to form a habit?</h2> Popular media and lifestyle advice from social media influencers often suggest it takes 21 days to make or break a habit – an idea <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Psycho_Cybernetics.html?id=J8dqtO6XqPMC&redir_esc=y">originally presented in the 1960s</a>. This is generally considered an oversimplification, though empirical evidence is surprisingly sparse. A seminal study published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.674">European Journal of Social Psychology</a> is often cited as showing habits take anywhere from 18 to 254 days to form, with an average of about 66 days. In that study, 96 people were asked to choose a new health habit and practice it daily for 84 days. Of the original 96 participants, 39 (41%) successfully formed the habit by the end of the study period. The level of success in forming a habit, and the length of time to form the habit, appeared to vary based on the type of goal. For example, goals related to drinking a daily glass of water were more likely to be successful, and be performed without conscious thought faster than goals related to eating fruit or exercising. Furthermore, the time of day appeared important, with habits cued earlier in the day becoming automatic more quickly than those cued later in the day (for example, eating a piece of fruit with lunch versus in the evening, and walking after breakfast versus walking after dinner). The study was fairly small, so these findings aren’t definitive. However, they suggest that if you haven’t been able to embed a new habit in just 21 days, don’t fret – there’s still hope! <h2>What about breaking unwanted habits?</h2> Most of us will also have habits we don’t like – unwanted behaviours. Within the brain, breaking unwanted habits is associated with a different form of neuroplasticity, called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_depression">long-term depression</a> (not to be confused with the mental health condition). Instead of strengthening neural connections, long-term depression is the process of weakening them. So, how do you silence two neurons that previously have been firing closely together? One popular approach to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2011.603640">breaking a bad habit</a> is pinpointing the specific cue or trigger that prompts the behaviour, and the reward that reinforces the habit. For example, someone might bite their nails when feeling stressed, and the reward is a temporary feeling of distraction, or sensory stimulation. Once the person has identified this connection, they can try to experiment with disrupting it. For example, by using a bitter nail polish, and focusing on deep breathing exercises when feeling stressed. Once disrupted, over time the old behaviour of biting their nails can gradually fade. <h2>Tips on how to form or break a habit</h2> To break a habit: <ul> <li>identify your triggers, and then avoid or modify them</li> <li>find a substitute: try replacing the old habit with a new and healthier one</li> <li>practise self-compassion: setbacks are a natural part of the process. Recommit to your goal and carry on.</li> </ul> To form a habit: <ul> <li>start small: begin with a simple and achievable habit that you can easily integrate into your daily routine</li> <li>be consistent: repeat the habit consistently until it becomes automatic</li> <li>reward yourself along the way to stay motivated.</li> </ul> If you think of habits like that riverbed, what deepens a river is the volume of water flowing through. With behaviour, that means repetition and similarity in repetition: practising your new habit. Because new habits might be overwhelming, practising in small chunks can help – so that you are not creating a new riverbed, but maybe just deepening parts of the main stream. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12811">Finding meaning</a> in the new habit is critical. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107373">Some studies</a> have reported strong findings that the belief you can change a habit is also critical. Believing in change and being aware of its potential, along with your commitment to practice, is key. Image credits: Shutterstock This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-what-happens-in-your-brain-when-youre-trying-to-make-or-break-a-habit-201189" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>.

Mind

3 ways your brain changes with ageing

Your entire body changes when you age, including your brain, which is responsible for everything. Regardless of your physical or neurological health, there is such a thing as “cognitive ageing.” It happens to the best of us! So, what are these changes? 1. Processing speed This refers to how quickly the brain can process information and provide a response. Processing speed affects almost every function in the brain, and it’s measured by how quickly you can manage a mental task. How it changes with ageing: <ul> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> It decreases over time. </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> The decrease starts in early adulthood, so by the time you reach your 70s and 80s, your processing speed is significantly down compared to the speed you once had in your 20s. </li> </ul> 2. Memory Memory is complex, and there’s different kinds of memory, but these are the functions that you’ll notice changes in as you age: <ul> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Working memory, the ability to hold information and manipulate it mentally, declines </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Episodic memory, the ability to remember personally experienced events at a certain plane or time, declines </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Prospective memory, the ability to remember to do things in the future, declines </li> </ul> 3. Attention The ability to concentrate and focus on something specific so that information can be mentally processed changes. <ul> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Selective attention, the ability to focus on something specific despite distractions or irrelevant stimuli, declines </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Divided attention, also known as “multi-tasking”, declines </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Sustained attention, the ability to remain concentrated on one task for an extended period of time, declines </li> </ul> Can anything be done? Unfortunately, there is no way to combat cognitive ageing, but there are things you can do to keep your brain healthy, which in turn will help keep you sharp. <ul> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Adequate sleep </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Proper nutrition </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Stimulate your brain with crosswords, sudoku or brain training apps </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Speak to people every day </li> <li dir="ltr" aria-level="1"> Read more </li> </ul> The longer you wait to help keep your brain healthy, the harder it becomes for your brain to remember things. Image credit: Shutterstock

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Best-selling author diagnosed with "aggressive" brain cancer

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Young boy beats rare brain cancer in world first

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Turning down the volume of pain – how to retrain your brain when you get sensitised

5 daily habits to improve heart, brain and eye health

Hit your head while playing sport? Here’s what just happened to your brain

How the brain stops us learning from our mistakes – and what to do about it

How habit stacking trains your brain to make good habits last

We make thousands of unconscious decisions every day. Here’s how your brain copes with that

Why study is the key to keeping your brain healthy as you age

Anxious dogs have different brains to normal dogs, brain scan study reveals

Here’s what happens in your brain when you’re trying to make or break a habit

3 ways your brain changes with ageing

News

Shop

Catalogues

Travel

Health

Lifestyle

Finance

Entertainment

Property

Information

Keep up to date

Search

Best-selling author diagnosed with "aggressive" brain cancer

Does intermittent fasting have benefits for our brain?

Young boy beats rare brain cancer in world first

Does running water really trigger the urge to pee? Experts explain the brain-bladder connection

The science of dreams and nightmares – what is going on in our brains while we’re sleeping?

If anxiety is in my brain, why is my heart pounding? A psychiatrist explains the neuroscience and physiology of fear

These 8 food and drink favourites are bad for your brain

Finding a live brain worm is rare. 4 ways to protect yourself from more common parasites

9 ways to exercise your brain

Hot flushes, night sweats, brain fog? Here’s what we know about phytoestrogens for menopausal symptoms

Turning down the volume of pain – how to retrain your brain when you get sensitised

5 daily habits to improve heart, brain and eye health

Hit your head while playing sport? Here’s what just happened to your brain

How the brain stops us learning from our mistakes – and what to do about it

How habit stacking trains your brain to make good habits last

We make thousands of unconscious decisions every day. Here’s how your brain copes with that

Why study is the key to keeping your brain healthy as you age

Anxious dogs have different brains to normal dogs, brain scan study reveals

Here’s what happens in your brain when you’re trying to make or break a habit

3 ways your brain changes with ageing

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